Example Essay - Government & Politics - The Executive & Prime Minister.

This essay was done to the time-limit of 45 minutes and was completed with 7 minutes to spare. It received an A. 

US Executive - Comparing the Two Executives with Theories

• Executive: The branch of government that implements, directs and administers laws and governs a nation.
  • In the UK: PM, Cabinet and top Civil Servants
  • In the USA: POTUS & VPOTUS, Cabinet, EXOP, and White House Office Staff.
    • Structurally: In the USA, the executive is merely whoever the POTUS wishes, in the UK this is more set in stone.
• Structural: The Cabinet in the USA is not powerful, it is merely advisory. POTUS who sets the tone of politics in America.
  • The Cabinet “may give advice and opinions in writing”
  • Constitution structurally puts a check on the POTUS. Congress also does this.
    • This is to avoid tyranny.
  • Even though the POTUS can set the policy agenda, Congress can merely decide not to give the money and thus end that bill or action e.g Congress vetoing the budget.
    • Supreme Court may also strike down actions or legislation proposed by the POTUS e.g Trump’s “Muslim” ban 2017
• Mandate: The authority and legitimacy given by an election e.g May currently has a poor mandate whilst Blair and Thatcher had big majorities hence a bigger mandate and more control overall.
• Structurally: The UK have always had a King or Queen therefore they remain head of state thus limiting the powers of the PM. Though this has decreased in recent years with the rise of prerogative powers.

Powers of the PM:

• Patronage: Act of appointing someone to a post e.g life peer, honour system and to the cabinet.
  • This is important because it rewards loyal ministers. This is a way of keeping people on side and happy. Important so you don’t not get ousted by the party as the PM have helped them.
• Treaties: Agreement with a country about anything but usually on war, trade and peace.
• Commander-in-Chief: Head of the army but recently held by Parliament – a convention – political norm
• Heading up Foreign Policy: The PM’s moral authority in other nations e.g Blair and the Euro 2003
• Setting up the Overall Agenda: Thatcher’s neo-liberalism approach to remove trade unions and remove the post-war consensus. Can also be done through taking their seat in Parliament and voting – done on party lines.

PM Relationship with the Legislature:

• As long as he or she holds a majority the PM effectively controls the legislature.
• HOL can delay for up to one year but this does nothing to thwart the will of PM
  • Structurally: This makes the PM more powerful as passing legislation is easier as he/she is less subject to scrutiny and also means the PM is likely to get their way with foreign policy.
• Scrutiny is provided by select committees, opposition days and PMQs.

Powers of POTUS:

• Patronage: Appointments to Cabinet and SC
• Commander-In-Chief: For example, Bush played a role in the War on Terror
• Represents the Nation Abroad: Meeting other leaders e.g G20 summit.
• Enact laws and Veto them: Trump removed Obamacare and removed America from the Iran and Paris agreement.
• Dependant on party support and control in both houses to pass laws.
• POTUS can pass Congress through executive orders, standing statements and recess appointments.
• Power is bound by the Constitution.
  • Structurally, this sets up the POTUS as a weaker player as Congress is first mentioned in the Constitution.

POTUS Relationship with Legislature:

• POTUS is directly elected and is thus not part of the legislature meaning he has less control over Congress.
  • True if he becomes a lame duck e.g Trump in 2018 losing the HOR to the Democrats.
• Structurally: The Senate is much more powerful than the Lords in the UK.
  • Senate is elected and has exclusive powers e.g rejecting SC nominees.
  • Equally, Congress has limited power to remove a POTUS unless they choose to impeach this but this is hard.
  • HOL is not elected and has very little power.

Rationally:

• Both PM and POTUS act in a self-serving way in order to pursue their own interests and protect their positions.
  • Manifesto promises especially if seeking re-election.
• POTUS usually wants to get major policies through in the first two years in order to minimise problems following the mid-term elections.

Structurally:

• POTUS is more constrained by the separation of powers leading to checks and balances meaning they must check their powers before acting.
• PM can dominate politics in the UK as they are part of the legislature but they must ensure the loyalty of MPs.

Culturally:

• Both PM and POTUS are members of a political party and so have to act within the party line as both rely on support in legislature.
• POTUS enjoys his own mandate and so are less constricted by their party.
  • History and culture of US politics also mean a POTUS has to face two elected chambers rather than the weaker, unelected second chamber in the UK – the House of Lords.

The Executive - Figures of PM with Successes & Failures

• Preeminent: Automatically having four institutional powers.
  • Legal head of government e.g appointing ministers
  • Leadership of the government e.g setting the policy agenda.
  • The Prime Minsters Office
  • Setting the political agenda e.g through the party and the media.
• All PMs are preeminent because they are primus inters pares. (first among equals)
• Some PMs become predominant because they are popular and this gives this them a huge mandate e.g Blair.
• Major, Cameron and May were not predominant.
• Thatcher won the Falklands War which made her predominant.
  • Blair dropped Clause 4 which also made him predominant.

Power of the PM and Cabinet to Dictate Events:

Harold Wilson – Success & Failures:

• Success – Social Reform: Divorce Reform Act 1969 & Race Relations as well as the introduction of the Open University. Was seen to be following public opinion and this made Wilson popular.
• Failure – European Integration: Was seen among Labour members as a “capitalist club” and Wilson called a referendum and suspended CCR. Remain won but within 6 years the Labour Party had split over the issue and this continues to struggle many PMs.

Margaret Thatcher – Successes & Failures:

• Success – Trade Union Reform: Cabinet members opted for slow, gradual change but Thatcher used her power of patronage to remove the wets and major reforms such as the secret ballot were introduced. Thatcher used her party in order to privatise BT, British Airways and British Gas.
• Failures – Poll Tax: A tax replacing community charge. People saw that the rich were paying less than the poor. Thatcher continued to let it through despite opposition. People rioted and many did not pay. Checks within the cabinet system failed and local authorities were not consulted. Electoral damaged was caused and Thatcher was removed.

Tony Blair – Successes & Failures:

• Successes – Constitutional Reform: Took ideas from previous Labour leader, John Smith, and worked in Cabinet Committees with Paddy Ashdown (Liberal Democrats). Later on, he regretted introducing the Freedom of Information and the botched result of the reduced role for the Lord Chancellor. He did play a major part in the Northern Ireland Peace Process in the Good Friday Agreement.
• Failures – Invasion of Iraq: Coloured by the legacy of Bush. Blair claimed that within 45 mins, WMD could destroy the country. He went into Iraq in the end. Reports later emerged that the Cabinet had been consulted 24 times on the issue but lacked key documents. In 2016, the Chilcot Report emerged claiming that other policy options had also not been consulted. This coloured Blair’s legacy and it ultimately cost him his time as PM. The whole debate sparked arguments that informed Cabinet discussion was needed and a spatial or Presidential style of government did not work in the UK.

The Executive - Factors Affecting Prime Ministers

		Strong PMs:	Weak PMs
S	Size of majority - big majority needed to pass legislation	Blair, Thatcher	Cameron, May, Major
L	Leadership – see below		Alec Douglas-Home
U	Ups and downs of the economy – is the economy doing well?	Cameron (?)	Brown, Callahan
M	Ministerial experience – Been in government before	Blair, Cameron	Brown
P	Policy records/events – Brexit		May
S	State of the opposition – strong opposition?	Thatcher, Cameron, May	Brown
REMEMBER – SLUMPS

Type of Leadership:			Example:
P	Presidential – A one man band	Blair
L	Laissze-faire – Don’t really do much, just waiting around	Alec Douglas-Home
U	Underhand (transaction) – Secretive	Wilson
M	Messianic (transformative) - transforming the country	Thatcher, Cameron
REMEMBER – PLUM

The Executive - Prime Minister Case Studies

Harold Wilson As PM – 1964-70 & 1974-76:

• Served in 2 non-consecutive terms: 1964-70 and 1974-76.
• He appeared in tune with public opinion, as he appeared at east on TV and he wanted to modernise the UK.
• His government increased welfare spending, reformed the education system and introduced liberal social reforms.
• Government was forced to devalue the pound in 1967 which damaging Wilson’s credibility.
• Critics said Wilson was focusing on short-term tactics and lacking principles or vision
• His second term was dogged by difficulties as they only won with a three-seat majority and intra-party divisions were showing over the ECC membership. He decided to hold a referendum on it.
• In the end he went after a vote on Scottish devolution failed and he lost a vote of no confidence by one vote.

Margaret Thatcher As PM – 1979-1992:

• She created Thatcherism by having monetarism, privatising state-owned industries and reducing trade unions power.
• She made less use of the cabinet than other PMs. She kept issues away from the cabinet and announced policy in them. Some said she was an example of using spatial leadership.
• Her skilful ability to manage the cabinet cemented her authority when many doubted her
• Victory in the 1982 Falklands War was seen as triumph and helped her win the election
• By the 1990s, she had few allies left in the cabinet. Major exploited her weakness to joining the ERM.
• She then failed to win the first ballot of he Conservative leadership election and when she met with her cabinet ministers one by one, when they refused to support her, she resigned.
• Unpopular policy, low opinion poll ratings and cabinet divisions contributed to her downfall.
• She was an author of her own misfortune as she ignored the concerns of ministers and she bypassed the cabinet.
• The poll tax was a policy where council tax was paid by everyone with the introduction of the poll tax. As it docked the poor and allowed the rich to keep their money as thousands who had never paid local tax were being charged hundreds. Riots happened, people blamed the government. Checks and balances failed. Thatcher was forced to go and Major replaced it with a council tax.

Tony Blair As PM – 1997 - 2007:

• When he was elected he had little time for cabinet meetings and preferred to conduct government business through bilateral meetings. He also used Spatical leadership and it was dubbed as ‘sofa government’.
• He enjoyed his big majority, a strong position within the party and a loyal cabinet
• He pursed a ‘third way’ that combined free markets economy, low taxes and a national minimum wage.
• He played a key role in Constitutional reform especially in the Northern Ireland peace process.
• His problems came in his second term, as he faced rebellion by MPs over Iraq, foundation hospitals and tuition fees with this, came a rating drop for him. His announcement that he would step down halfway through his 3^rd term weakened his authority and he had to fend off attempts to remove him. By stepping down in June 2007, Blair jumped before he was pushed.
• The agreement between Blair and Brown was unusual as Brown was the brains behind New Labour and many wanted him as the face. However, the decision between the two was mutual, one could not maintain his position without the other.

David Cameron As PM – 2010-2015:

• Had a more collegial approach than Thatcher or Blair mainly because he was in the coalition.
• Key decisions were taken by the ‘Quad’.
• He appeared suited to the coalition and allowed ministers greater freedom to get on with their jobs.
• Trouble began when he made U-turns on policy and the NHS reforms failed. Economic austerity was the defining position of the coalition and the Lib Dems accepted much of it.
• As public spending was cut, Cameron’s credibility also decreased. But voters still trusted the Conservatives more than Labour.
• The coalition stayed the full term but there was growing tensions.
• In 2013 Cameron promised an in/out referendum on the EU and he legalised same-sex marriage.
• His victory in the 2015 GE strengthen his position but with a small majority, he announced he would retire before the next GE. A year later he resigned when the UK voted for Brexit.

Theresa May As PM – 2016 -2019:

• Early signs that she would be strong: cabinet reshuffle, support within the party, good opinion polls, mineral expertise.
• Limits: Early GE calling, losing her majority, divisions within the cabinet over her leadership and policy direction, scale of policy challenges faced because of Brexit and a sharp reduction in her standings in the opinion polls.
• Brexit, ERG and ultimately not having a majority saw her ending and Boris Johnson taking over.

The Executive - Different Types of Government and PM

Cabinet Or Prime-Ministerial Government:

• Cabinet Government: A system of government in which executive power is vested in a cabinet, whose members exercise collective cabinet responsibility rather than single office.
• Prime-Ministerial Government: A system of government in which the prime minister is the dominate actor and is able to bypass the cabinet.
• Walter Bagehot said we were in a of cabinet government in which the PM is “first among equals” (primus inter pares) but decision making was a collective endeavour.
• At the end of the 20^th century, the powers of the PM had expanded and it seemed to be that we were in a prime-ministerial government.
• Power is not held by one, it is shared. Decline in the power of the cabinet does not inevitably mean that the PM is dominate.
• The PM needs the support of cabinet ministers

When Is The PM Predominate:

Pre-Eminent:

1. Legal head of government e.g appointing ministers
2. Leadership of the government e.g setting policy agenda
3. PM office
4. Setting the political agenda e.g through the party and the media

• Thatcher and Blair are examples of this

Predominant:

1. Leadership ability and reputation
2. Association with political success
3. Electoral popularity
4. A high standing within the party

• Brown and Cameron are examples of this

Has The PM Become Presidential:

• Personalised Leadership: PM has a dominate political personality who stamps his/hers imprint on the government and imposes a personal vision. Thatcher allowed her ideology to set the political agenda whilst Cameron and Blair tried to modernise the party. Introduction of TV debates in 2010 reinforced the focus on party leaders
• Public Outreach: The media spotlight falls onto the PM more than any other minister. PM is expected to connect with the popular mood. They claim to represent the public and take their message directly to the public through the popular media, Blair and Cameron were good at this.
• Spatial Leadership: A PM relies more on his/hers inner circle of advisers than the cabinet such as Blair’s “sofa government” and the ‘Quad’ (Cameron, Clegg, Osborne and Alexander). Blair and Cameron presented themselves as outsiders in their own parties.

Has The Prime Minister Become More Presidential:
Yes	No:
Leadership in the executive has been personalised with the PM expected to impose his or her personality and agenda.	PM leads but cannot command the executive particularly in coalition and directs rather than controls the agenda
PM increasingly relies on a close circle of senior ministers and advisers.	Senior ministers have resources of their own, including support from government departments
PM have created a ‘strategic space’ between themselves and their governments distancing themselves from other actors in the executive.	PM needs the support ministers and officials to achieve his or her objective.
PM appeal to the public directly through the media and claim a personal mandate from the electorate.	PM position is strong only if he or she enjoys policy success and popular approval and makes effective use of his/hers personal ability.
PM have additional authority as party leaders, where they are elected by MPs and members and exercise personal leaderships.	Support from the party is not unconditional and unpopular leaders face concerted efforts to remove them.

The Executive - Resignations in Government

Resignation Of Iain Duncan Smith:

• Work and Pensions Secretary Iain Duncan Smith resigned, citing pressure to make cuts to disability benefits.
• He wrote a letter of resignation to the Prime Minister, David Cameron, citing his resignation.
• He complained that the new budget did not help the disabled and it was a “compromise too far” in a budget that only benefitted the rich and not the poor in 2016.
• David Cameron, the Prime Minister, stated that he was confused because he said that Duncan-Smith had agreed to the cuts and he was asked on his stance on the things the government were doing but still wanted to resign.
• He was however uncomfortable with the government policy for a while and had joined the leave campaign in the EU referendum.

Resignation Of Thomas Dugdale:

• Dubbed as the Crichel Down Affair, a number of people were forced to resign as the scandal made national news in the country
• The RAF bought the Crichel land to practice bombing near Dorset but when the owner of the land died during the War, Churchill stated to Parliament that the land would be returned to the owners when the RAF no longer needed it.
• Churchill did not keep his promise and return the land to the owners daughter. The daughters, started a campaign which caught the public eye.
• Churchill then sold the land to Ministry of Agriculture who vastly increased the price and then leased it out.
• Because of this, the minister involved (Thomas Dugdale) was forced to resign and was also forced to give the land back. His resignation set the tone as the first example of ministerial responsibility.

The Executive - Cabinet Secretary Role in the Cabinet Office

The Cabinet Office, What Is It And What Role Does It Play:

• Make sure each part of government are communicating with each other via phone, email or in person
• Decisions are made by ministers e.g Boris Johnson
• Cabinet minister organise things which actual ministers cannot
• Minutes are recorded and they can “not” record in case they are told
• Try to make government work
• Co-ordinate policies
• Replace dog fights

Cabinet Secretary, What Does He Do:

• So far it has only been a male
• Not in the public spotlight, usually someone who is very clever but may not like public speaking
• A job for life, non-partisan
• Top civil servant in the country, a very powerful man
• Appointed by the PM on advice of last cabinet secretary
• Set up after the Battle of Somme
• Most powerful but not elected
• They want to the PM to have a mentor-mentee relationship by introducing them to important things as soon as they step into 10 Downing Street
• Ensure that the PMs decisions are carried out.

The Executive - The Cabinet & Relationship with PM

Appointing Cabinet Ministers:

• In theory, the PM can create the cabinet in their own image by appointing loyal MPs and getting rid of disloyal MPs. In practice, the PM does not do this
• In the 2010 coalition, Cameron was required to have 5 Lib Dems in his cabinet. It is unlikely that constraint will be faced if this is the case e.g unlikely to overlook senior MPs as they may be rivals for the PM job. Another example is that Brown agreed not to stand vs Blair and in return, Blair would make him Chancellor.
• May in 2016 did not appoint Gove and Osborne – perhaps a show of her authority
• Ideological consideration must be made e.g Thatcher had one nation and some Thatcherites in her cabinet and they may not agree with some aspects of the party. May had some who supported remain and some who voted to leave her in cabinet
• Could hire ministers from different parts of the country to have some MPs with experience and some younger rising stars.

Cabinet Reshuffles:

• Some may get a further post but some may be dismissed. Allows PM to promote successful ministers and demote those who have underachieved.
• Power to dismiss can backfire as it can raise questions about the PMs judgement and it may highlight policy failures e.g Thatcher got rid of Geoff Howie who was Foreign Secretary and that triggered her removal one year later.
• Some senior ministers may thwart a PMs plan by refusing to change post e.g Brown/Darling/Ball

Authority Within The Cabinet System:

• The PM will: Chair cabinet meetings, manage the agenda, direct cabinet meetings, create cabinet committees, hold bilateral meetings, appoints civil servants, organises the structure of government.
• PM ensures that his/her view is the favoured view but senior ministers may provide alternate viewpoint
• PM should give a sense of purpose, cohesion and decision

Policy-Making Input:

• PM has license to get involved across the whole political spectrum
• PM takes an active interest in economic and foreign policy. PM is likely to set objectives for foreign secretary and chancellor but, PM needs the backing of senior ministers.
• E.g Thatcher played a role in the Falklands War, Blair on Iraq and Brown on the recession. 2012 coalition limited Cameron’s room for manoeuvre but he still set the overall agenda and determined responses to everyday issues e.g Syria

Party Leadership:

• PM must be leader of the party with a working majority
• Majority strengthens the government they because they can enact the programme they want to
• An increase in rebel backbench MPs means a PM cannot rely on party support e.g EU ref was called for by backbenchers, Cameron listened to them.
• Leaders are elected by MPs and party members. The length and cost of leadership make them rare. Blair and Brown both avoided going out of office by rebel MPs

Public Standing:

• PM has a high public profile, providing leadership at home and away
• Thatcher and Blair have a significant impact on the world stage and both had a strong relationship with POTUS
• PM has taken on the role of communicator-in-chief for the government. Yearly appearances before the HOC Liasion Committee are a formal expression of this part in the role
• Public satisfaction with the PM can strengthen their position.
• A PM regarded as strong and effective has greater authority than one perceived as weak or out of touch.
• Thatcher was polarised but at the end, she was viewed as autocratic, Blair had high ratings until the Iraq war, Cameron’s ratings fell as austerity took effect but he was more popular than the party, May’s poor performance in the 2017 General Election weakened her position.

Cabinet Ministers:

• Cabinet is mainly ministers – 22 of them are officially paid
• PM can invite ministers to attend cabinet meetings without them being full members. Cameron did this 10 times, May just 5 so far
• Most cabinet members are head of a governmental department
• No position for deputy PM with specific responsibility

Cabinet Meetings:

• Frequency and length has reduced since the 1950s
• Used to meet twice a week, now just once a week
• Blair meetings were 1hr but they could just be half
• Cameron’s were longer, he like Blair, liked to do business outside the cabinet
• Meetings are formal with fixed seating, agenda is set in advance with relevant ministers speaking.

Cabinet Committees:

• These include: Ministerial standing committee which is a permanent feature of office; sub-committees to a reporting standing committee; ad hock committees which are temporary to death with a particular issue; implication taskforces such as those used by Cameron and May to track policy.
• Standing commit have considerable autogamy to determine the direction and detail of policy
• Only when a final decision is not made will the cabinet concern themselves over it
• Cabinet committees were given greater priority following criticism of Blair’s preference of informal meetings.
• May has had 4 of them, Cameron also had 4
• Agenda is determined beforehand, must be approved by the Treasury
• Policy decisions also are seen in bilateral meetings

The Cabinet Office:

• Cabinet secretariat regulates and co-ordinates cabinet business – calling meetings, circulating papers and preparing the agenda. Head of the civil service also attends. Acts as factillion in case is disputes
• Under Blair, Cabinet office was given leading role in policy delivery

What Role And Powers Do The Cabinet Have:

• Ministerial code and Cabinet manual sets out the role and function of the cabinet acting as the authoritative guide
• Functions are: Registering and ratifying decisions taken elsewhere, discussing major issues, receiving reports on key developments of key policy, settling disputes between government departments
• Decisions are made in bilateral meetings cabinet acts as a cleaning house for policy. If PM agrees then it is unlikely to change
• Ministers are only bothered about there own departments so they have little time to see other policies or they lack expertise – this can curb ministers
• Cabinet now takes fewer decisions than it did in the past, diaries of past cabinet members said ideas were discussed in detail. Blair and Thatcher avoided this, key decisions were made by a few ministers and advisers.

Discussing Or Making Decisions On Major Issues:

• The cabinet remains the ultimate decision-making body in the government
• The cabinet is significant/ its functions because Issues are important or sensitive, a major or unexpected development which requires a rapid decision, government departments cannot reach a decision.
• Ministers can advise and warn the PM but the PM must ultimately make the decisions
• Even when the cabinet does consider major issues the role if largely advisory e.g 2003 vote on the Euro Currency change but in reality, everyone was just airing the same view
• PM may keep an issue away to minimise the chance of the view being challenged e.g Thatcher and ERM
• Blocking discussion is counterproductive as it widens the rift between the PM and senior ministers better if the PM asks so that they’re assured they are being listened to
• Ken Clark noted of how cabinet discussion is decreasing with every PM and time was taken on departmental reports rather than discussion

Reports On Current Issues:

• Cabinet hears reports on currents developments allowing ministers to keep abreast of situations, they have a formal agenda with the following reports as standard: Parliamentary business, economic and home affairs, foreign affairs
• Leaders of the Commons and Lords outline the following weeks business, this reflects the cabinet formal role in timetabling bill and ministerial statements
• On other issues, ministers may clarify or question policy. May offer personal views or that of the department they are in charge of
• Only small numbers of interventions usually by senior ministers

Settling Disputes:

• If an issue cannot be settled in cabinet committee or bilateral meeting it may be referred to the cabinet
• Some are straightforward e.g spending allocations or which department should push legislation
• Court of appeal does not always work well e.g 1985 Westland Affair where Heseltine resigned because he was unhappy with Thatcher ruling that the cabinet would not hear his appeal

Ministerial Responsibility:

Collective Cabinet Responsibility:

• The cabinet is a united body where ministers are part of the same party and the agreed manifesto
• Unity is undermined by departmental and personal rivalries, fighting or their departments
• Money and influence is hard to get whereas authority is already given so they may act as good government department ministers

The Three Elements Of Collective Cabinet Responsibility:

• Secrecy: Ministers must keep details of discussion in the cabinet system private. Ensures that sensitive data does not get into the public domain and they prevent differences of opinion from being revealed.
• Binding Decisions: Once a decision is reached within the cabinet, it become binding on all ministers regardless of whether they approve or oppose it. Those who are unable should resign or expect to be dismissed such as Ian Duncan Smith. The Blair and Brown government some saw ministers resign in an attempt to change the leader
• Confidence Vote: Governments must resign if they lose a vote of no confidence. Last happened in 1979 with Callaghan after a loss in it’s bill on Scottish devolution was defeated in the Commons.

Exceptions To Collective Cabinet Responsibility:

• Suspension: During referendums the PM can suspend CCR to prevent ministerial resignation over differences this was done in both EEC 1975 and EU 2016 in, out vote
• Coalition: Some Lib Dem ministers were not bound by CCR because of disagreement on the bedroom tax
• Free Votes: On some cases a free vote is allowed on a vote on conscience e.g same sex marriage

Strains On Collective Cabinet Responsibility:

• Leaks: Ministers may leak to the media as they want dissatisfaction to be aired. Leaking can be after retirement in books e.g Ed Balls
• Dissent And Non-Resignation: Cabinet ministers may oppose policy but won’t resign even if the concern from the minister is in the public domain. Thatcher then removed these people but once her position was secure
• PM Dominance: Cabinet ministers under Thatcher and Blair claim that the PM undermined CCR by ignoring the cabinet e.g Clare Short complained that Blair did not consult the cabinet

What Is Individual Ministerial Responsibility:

• The principle that ministers are responsible for their personal conduct and that of their departments
• Long drawn distinction between ministerial accountability and individual responsibility
• Sir David Maxwell-Fyfe stated that ministers should not resign if it is a civil servants fault
• Ministers have a duty to be as open as possible and they must give accurate truth and information to Parliament
• Ministers are responsible for policy but officials are responsible for day to day operational matters.