US Pressure Groups - Using Theories to Compare Pressure Groups

Structural:

• UK pressure groups already have the opportunity to lobby government/executive
• USA pressure groups have more chance to lobby because there are more congressional and elections in general. Power lies with Congress so pressure groups lobby the legislature.

Determining The Success of PG:

• Size of membership, amount of money available, position in the political system, attitude of administration, ability to access to the media and people.
  • “Pressure groups are successful largely to the extent that those who control the authority of the state allow them to be successful” – Malcom Wales 1988.
  • In both countries, power does not reside with PG. The success of them depends on the ability of the government to stand up to them.
    • PGs aren’t too powerful, they’re only powerful because structurally the government allows them to.

Electioneering & Endorsing:

• More elective posts in the USA than in the UK therefore there are greater opportunities to lobby.
• Mainly lobby and endorse the two main parties but can lobby at state level not just at a federal level.
• More chances to lobby due to structural reasons

Trade Unions & Businesses:

• Structural as well as cultural.
• Cultural & Structural: Trade unions in the UK are a part of history e.g Labour party forming out of unions.
• Cultural: Business groups maintain strong links with the Conservative party
• Structural: USA has high levels of incumbency therefore pressure groups give their money to incumbents and not to challengers.
  • In 2012, 91% of senators and 90% of representatives who sought re-election won.
• Culturally: Membership of trade unions is down in the USA. But this is also decreasing in the UK.
  • 26% of people in the UK are members of a trade union, that number is 13% in the USA.

Lobbying The Legislature:

• Structural: Parliament is heavily controlled by the party [whips] therefore pressure groups don’t have a chance to lobby
  • Congress is less disciplined. “Most pressure groups have learnt that the surest route to the heart of Congress is through their constituents” – Martin Harrop.
• UK: Parliament is not a happy hunting ground for pressure groups.
  • In recent years, pressure groups have attempted to lobby the Lords as peers are not whipped to toe the party line.

Lobbying The Executive:

• PG focus on the executive in the UK as this is where power lies.
• Policy specific groups tend to focus their efforts on the relevant governmental department e.g NEU to Damian Hinds.
• Structural: The separation of powers as opposed to the fusion of powers and the dominance of the government in the UK is the most important factor that affects the different ways pressure groups operate in the two countries.

Lobbying The Judiciary:

• Difference between lobbying in both countries as they have different political important in each country.
• “In countries in which the Constitution provides the courts with a formal role of judicial review, activists will use the courts more readily” – Watts 2008
• Structurally this method of lobbying is much more established in the USA than in the UK
• In the USA groups spend vast amounts of time and money to lobby the judiciary.
• Culturally: PGs have a long history of lobbying the Supreme Court and has been a key player in landmark decisions.
• Structurally: In the UK, Parliament is sovereign so there is no such thing as lobbying the judiciary even with the introduction of the new Supreme Court.
  • This may change in the future as opportunities arise but the UK court lacks the same political clout of names in Washington. The balance will therefore remain the same.

Grassroots Activity:

• Important in both countries.
  • Seek to influence in the media and to use celebrity endorsement where possible.
• Structurally: In the UK political parties are seen as more disciplined so PG focus their attention on the two main parties.
• Structurally: In the USA, parties are looser federation of state parties so influence will be aimed more at the branches of government themselves.

US Pressure Groups - Comparing UK/US Pressure Groups

• Pressure Groups in the USA have more opportunity to influence than their UK counterparts

Electioneering & Endorsing:

• Lots more elective posts in the USA than the UK. As both houses in the USA are re-elected every 2-3 years whilst in the UK only one house is elected and that is every 5 years.
• Then in the USA, there are lots of federal elections which groups can influence whilst in the UK there are no such elections
• This means that in the USA, pressure groups have more opportunities for influence than their UK counterparts.

Trade Unions & Business:

• Business and organised labour groups gravitate towards the Republican and Democrat party
• In the UK most labour MPs have links to a trade union either as a member or because the union made a donation to them whereas in the US this is not the case.
• Figures from 2000 show that in the 29% of employees are members of a trade union whereas, in the USA, this figure is just 13%. This has significant implications for workers lobbying powers.

Lobbying The Legislature:

• British Parliament is more controlled by the executive whereas in the USA this is not the case
• Martin Harrop said that pressure groups use other members of Congress to get what they want
• In the UK, pressure groups do not sway MPs, they may instead raise questions in PMQs but they will not ‘vote’ for that group
• HOL may ask questions because they are not under a constraint from the party

Lobbying The Executive:

• In the UK, pressure groups focus on the executive and policy specific groups target a government department
• In the USA, the same is done via the congressional committee.
• The fusion and separation of powers are how this is done as it affects the way pressure groups operate.

Lobbying The Judiciary:

• Watts said if the Constitution provides the courts with more balance then pressure groups will see them and influence them. This was seen via the vast amounts of money spent lobbying the federal courts
• In the US, lobbying the supreme court has paved the way for equal rights
• In the UK, this is not the case as Parliament is supreme but pressure groups may find opportunities in the future.

Political Participation & Democracy - Improving Democracy in the UK

Compulsory Voting:

• Increases public participation
• A system that could fine people who do not vote, maybe a fine between £30-£50
• Already works in countries such as Australia
• People will gain a greater interest in politics
• Money made from fines could go into public education about politics and political broadcasting
• However, there are strong beliefs that the ‘right to vote’ also includes the right to not vote
• Undermines British Values
• Forcing the public to vote could lead to public apathy and resentment.

Reform Of The Voting System:

• Change the voting system to a more proportional one
• STV is a good voting system
• Can be confusing
• Would weaken the link between voters and leaders
• Doesn’t increase turnout that much

Reform Of The House Of Lords:

• Get rid of the remaining hereditary peers to make it more democratic
• Would make it more legitimate
• Fully or partical elected leaders in the House Of Lords
• Would give greater authority
• Could undermine the House Of Lords or it could gridlock it.
• Would reduce the number of experts in the House Of Lords

Reform of MPs:

• Makes MP more responsible to the demands of the constituency.
• Could hinder an MPs role
• MPs would have to use conscience and judgement rather than following the rules
• We could remove them if they do not do a good job

Reforming The House Of Commons:

• Make PMQ’s more adversarial
• More from the speaker to control debates
• Online questions sent directly to the PM from the public
• These old traditions are popular and don’t face calls for them to reform

Reforming The Devolved System:

• West Lothian Question where Scottish MPs can decide on English Laws but English MPs cannot decide on Scottish Laws
• Could create two chambers which undermines the legislated chamber.

Political Participation & Democracy - The Development of Rights

Table Of Different Rights:

Year	Milestone	Summary
1215	Magna Carta	Imposed various restrictions on the monarchy in order to prevent abuse from the monarch
1689	Bill Of Rights	Imposed greater levels on the power of the monarchy and set out rights of Parliament including free elections
1953	European Convention Of Human Rights	Signed in 1950, government actions had to comply with the ECHR where you could challenge the government
1973	European Court Of Justice	UK joined the ECC (the EU). Power to protect the worker rights in the UK
1984	Data Protection Act	Protection of personal information held by public institutions updated in 1988 and 1998.
1998	Human Rights Act	Made ECHR into UK law, replacing common law and allowing citizens to have rights protection
2000	Freedom Of Information	Allowed citizens to access non-security information held by institutions
2010	Equality Act	Coded all anti-discriminate into one document.

What Is The Human Rights Act:

• Have many of the provisions of the ECHR
• It meant only people with resources and means could challenge the government action but it had to be brought to a foreign court.
• Became British law
• Easier for ordinary citizens to seek legal help in courts if rights have been infringed
• Rapid development of ‘rights culture’ in the UK

Why Does Stonewall Love the HRA:

• Right to live and work freely – legislation to protect people from discrimination
• Right to love – LGBT people can start a family, legislation to protect rights to a family life
• Right to be who we are – Gender recognition acts providing rights for transgender people
• Right to be safe – LGBT people to be free from bullying in the workplace and at schools because of who you are
• Right to be accepted – In the UK people are protected but internationally they are not. The legislation is needed.

What Is The HRA:

• Legislation that protects human rights
• Makes sure rights become the UK law
• You can defend your rights in a UK court
• Made after WW2 to protect human rights

Why Are They So Important:

• Protects all of us
• Good for families but not LGBT people and this lets them start a family or let them serve in the military
• Public bodies have to take our rights into account when making decisions about housing, healthcare etc.
• Enable LBGT equality over the last 18 years. Wants everyone to be accepted as they are in the UK.

Pressure Groups And Rights:

• Raise awareness of the threat to rights, promote rights of people and puts pressure on the government to ensure these rights are protected.
• Examples: Liberty, amnesty interaction, centre on housing rights and evictions, witness.

Political Participation & Democracy - Human Rights

• Rights you have simply because you are human
• If we asked people you would get around 20 different responses
• Based on the principle of respect for an individual
• Each person should be treated with dignity no matter what
• Before there were no human rights but after world war 2, the universal declaration came and 30 rules were announced which all countries have to follow

Magna Carta:

• King John of England in 1215 had to sign it as King as the government were not above the law.
• King John visited a number of rights and his subjects forced him to sign the Magna Carta which was later thought to be the first kind of human rights.
• Among it was the right to be free from government influence and bribery and official misconduct.

Petition Of Right:

• Produced in 1628 by Parliament and left to Charles I as a statement of civil liberties.
• Refused by Parliament for the Kings Foreign Policy to exact forced loans
• Parliament was hostile so Sir Edward Cole asserted four principles.
• No taxes can be levied without the consent of Parliament, no subject may be imprisoned without care shown and the martial law may not be used in terms of peace.
• A consitiution is designed to ensure everyone is following the laws including the government. To keep people in check including the government.

Legal High Case Study:

• Before May 2016, drugs were illegal if they had been banned by UK legislation.
• NPS are substances that contain various chemicals not all of which are illegal.
• Have similar effects to illegal drugs such as cocaine and cannabis.
• Authorities have legal power arrest anyone in possession or selling them.
• In May 2016, the government a legislation was created, creating a blanket ban on the drugs in them that were now illegal. Thus, ending people using legal highs.
• Does the government have a responsibility to protect those making a mistake?

Political Participation & Democracy - Other Organisations

• Think Tanks: A group that has formed with the specific purpose of formulating and developing policy ideas.

• Traditionally done by parties but now done by groups offer alternative views.
• First seen under Blair’s “New Labour” – wasn’t supported by the party though. Came up the 3^rd way (middle, where some areas were privately funded and some were owned by the state)
• Can be single group issues e.g Adam Smith Institute on the single market.
• Or it can be general agenda such as Reform who develop ideas for public services.
• Privately funded by the group or individuals who have workable ideas
• Like pressure groups, they rely on working with the government or with a party rather than a populist campaign.
• Policy: Is an action plan for the government – to try and put it into law to become legislation.

Lobbyists:

• The process of meeting with key political figures and trying to persuade them to support your aims
• Corporations and other groups employ lobbyists to gain this kind of level of access.
• Does not guarantee that it will work but adds face to face value and being friends with them can help

Lobbyist In The USA:

• Based on K Street in Washington and is a $3.4 billion industry.
• Influences legislation ‘revolving door syndrome’ where members of Congress join a lobby whilst remaining in contact with old colleagues.
• 114 lobby firms in the UK, increase in politicians using lobbying.
• No proof that lobbying works, no way to register influence. But the big growth in the UK and the USA shows that some of it is working.

Corporations:

• Work closely with the government to develop practical legislation
• Governments consult corporations on certain policy ideas to ensure they’re practical
• Look to exert pressure on those in charge to gain an advantage – can be through lobbying. Look to exert influence and pressure through control of a certain part of society.
• Pressure the government to give them more legislation of finical assistance by relocating e.g Nissan or Ford moving factories in other countries aside from the UK.
• Those in banking sectors may relocate offices from London which would weaken the economy and would lead to unemployment as well as for support services such as food staff or IT sector staff.

Political Participation & Democracy - Pressure Groups: Insider or Outsider Status

• Insider Status: Have a special relationship with the government and are given access to officials and decision-makers as well as civil servants. Access to the corridor of power.
• Outsider Status: Don’t have links with the government but generate attention from the media by doing publicity students etc.

How:

• Research and publish reports: Evidence to support the group and to also inform the public
• Celebrity Spokesperson: Raise the profile of the group, to gain media attention and to attract more people from the fans of the celebrity.
• Digital Campaigns: Social media to publish information

• Go On Strike: To put pressure on those in power to force demands to be met by causing disruption.
• Publicity Stunts: Doing a stunt to gain media attention and to generate awareness
• Lobbying: Meeting with politicians to get their ideal decision to be made.

Is The Internet Good For Pressure Groups:
Yes:	No:
Cheap way of spreading information and raising awareness	Too many pressure groups online so it's hard to stand out
Easier to organise events	Professional websites are needed and they are expensive and pressure groups rely on death
Easier to participate in pressure groups	‘Slacktivism’ actions performed via the Internet in support of a political or social cause but regarded as requiring little time or involvement. So fewer people are active in pressure groups.

Why Do People Join A Pressure Group:

• Representation: If views aren’t being demonstrated by a political party, often with iron tires such as gay rights
• Personal Beliefs: If the pressure groups reflect their beliefs, they share the same goal
• Participation: To get involved in a political issue by attending public campaigns.
• Material Benefits: To get something from joining by getting something out of it, doesn’t mean you’re passionate about the group.
• Need: They join because they have to, for job protection perhaps as it is mainly to achieve something
  Case Study - The RMT (National Union of Trains & Maritime)
  10 things they do:
• They protect and better the members pay – this is the key objective
• Shorter and safer working hours for drivers etc.
• To protect the defend the rights and conditions of all members
• Health and safety of members
• Legal cover for staff and everyone in that family.

A Recent Case:

• Ticket offices shut which lead to concerns about passenger and staff safety so staff went on strike.

Successes:

• Government wanted staff to work more hours during the 2012 Olympics so the running of it was smooth but the workers wanted extra money for working extra hours – the government said no. Staff asked. Government said £250 extra, staff said no. Government offered £1000 – they accepted (depending on flexibility of how many hours worked etc.)
• It would have looked bad if the staff went on strike whilst the eyes of the world were on London

Failures:

• Ticket offices have been shut – staff went on strike and they failed to gain public support, lack of public sympathy and a court case was rejected.

Political Participation & Democracy - Pressure Groups

• Don’t want to be elected, they aren’t seeking power and they campaign on a single issue to change the government stance on something by campaigning themselves

What Is The Difference Between Sectional Pressure Groups And Causal Pressure Groups:

Sectional:

• Sectional pressure groups look after their own section of society, for example, the BMA or trade unions in work.
• They are a professional association who represent a company.
• They have a shared interest but its hard to join them since it is closed membership so only specific people can join.
• They also act in the best interest of the members and they try and pressure those in power to change certain rules and such and finally they are a single section in society.

Casual:

• Causal pressure groups campaign for a particular issue – one that does not affect members.
• They campaign on behalf of members as they most likely are unable to themselves.
• The group is usually what the members have in common since their backgrounds can vary.
• They also aim to improve society usually by things such as charity like the RSPCA or Oxfam.
• They fundraise and raise awareness so research and education can be done
• They put pressure on those in power so they change their ways.

• Greenpeace is an example of a causal group as they campaign against issues.
• Causal groups look to raise awareness of a particular issue and to increase participation

Sectional Pressure Groups:	Causal Pressure Groups:
Protect the interest of members	Promote a value
Closed membership	Open to all people
Motivated by self-interests	Motivated by altruistic considerations

Methods Used By Pressure Groups:

• Lobby: Meet with the government to try and pressure them
• Research And Publish Reports: Evidence to support the group and to also inform the public
• Publicity Campaigns: To raise awareness to show the scale of support given by the public
• Public Demonstration: To seek awareness by marching
• Celebrity Spokesperson: Raise the profile of the group, to gain media attention and to attract more people from the fans of the celebrity.
• Digital Campaigns: Social media to publish information
• Shock Tactics: Doing something shocking to gain attention from the media
• Symbols: Create badges and an identity so people know who the group is and they research them so they learn new things and perhaps even be persuaded to join.

Political Participation & Democracy - Do We Have An Effective Democracy in the UK

• The job of democracy to make sure everyone's voice is heard.
• Politicians should take responsibility of there actions and ensure the country is run fairly and if we don’t like it we have the option to vote them out every 4-5 years.
• An example of the MP’s not following the rules is the MP Expenses scandal in 2017 where the Conservative party brought things for themselves and claimed it on taxpayers expenses.

Positives & Negatives Of An Effective Democracy In The UK:
Positives	Negatives:
Parliament holds the power so we have people voting for us instead of people voting individually.	We aren’t electing hereditary peers in the Houses Of Lords so the public has no real say.
Votes are equal in value	Safe seats for each party in an election means there is no real competition
Pressure groups which challenge the government on stances and hopefully change them	Important issues are drowned out during campaigning
Devolution where we can make local decisions.	Parties are able to find a grey area so they can spend more during the campaign even though it is against the rules
Elections are free from government manipulation as they are conducted independently	Wasted votes have no say so not everyone votes
There are spending limits on what the party can do
Ban on campaigning on the purdah: The period before an election or a vote where a new statement cannot be made to influence voters

Populism:

1. Some politicians appeal to the people's emotions in relation to things such as immigration
2. Some politicians argue for short term goals than long term goals.

Political Participation & Democracy - What is a Democracy

• A democracy is what’s known as “people power” with the government telling people to vote on issues that directly affect them.

What Are The Functions Of A Democracy:

• Representation: People talking about there views in government e.g MPs
• Accountability: The government is made to explain and take responsibility for there actions.
• Participation: Everyone should be engaged and should take part in a political process
• Power Dispersal: Power should be spread to avoid one party becoming dominant
• Legitimacy: Government have the legal authority and will fairly represent the will of the people. It will also be a fair and legal election. Elections are fair if it is a secret ballot and votes are counted correctly.
• Education: Politics should be open to all and everyone should be educated to make informed decisions.

Examples Of Direct Democracy:

• Referendums: A public vote directly on an issue presented to them
• Initiatives: Mainly used in the USA, called for by a percentage of the population so it is more direct to the public.

Arguments For Direct Democracy	Arguments Against Direct Democracy
Pure form of democracy as everyone has a say	Not practical as there are many issues in the current world which need debating
Increased legitimacy as they have the support of the people	Minorities are not heard because of majorities
Improves participation as they have more opportunities when it will directly affect them.	Undermines the elected representative which the public voted for
Increases public engagement as more people have a say	Low turnouts mean only a small amount of people actually make a decision.
Improves education as people need to be informed to make decisions.	People vote based on emotion and not on what they have learnt.
It already works in other countries such as Switzerland.	People vote on what works best for them and not what may be in the public interest.