US Pressure Groups - Using Theories to Compare Pressure Groups

Structural:

• UK pressure groups already have the opportunity to lobby government/executive
• USA pressure groups have more chance to lobby because there are more congressional and elections in general. Power lies with Congress so pressure groups lobby the legislature.

Determining The Success of PG:

• Size of membership, amount of money available, position in the political system, attitude of administration, ability to access to the media and people.
  • “Pressure groups are successful largely to the extent that those who control the authority of the state allow them to be successful” – Malcom Wales 1988.
  • In both countries, power does not reside with PG. The success of them depends on the ability of the government to stand up to them.
    • PGs aren’t too powerful, they’re only powerful because structurally the government allows them to.

Electioneering & Endorsing:

• More elective posts in the USA than in the UK therefore there are greater opportunities to lobby.
• Mainly lobby and endorse the two main parties but can lobby at state level not just at a federal level.
• More chances to lobby due to structural reasons

Trade Unions & Businesses:

• Structural as well as cultural.
• Cultural & Structural: Trade unions in the UK are a part of history e.g Labour party forming out of unions.
• Cultural: Business groups maintain strong links with the Conservative party
• Structural: USA has high levels of incumbency therefore pressure groups give their money to incumbents and not to challengers.
  • In 2012, 91% of senators and 90% of representatives who sought re-election won.
• Culturally: Membership of trade unions is down in the USA. But this is also decreasing in the UK.
  • 26% of people in the UK are members of a trade union, that number is 13% in the USA.

Lobbying The Legislature:

• Structural: Parliament is heavily controlled by the party [whips] therefore pressure groups don’t have a chance to lobby
  • Congress is less disciplined. “Most pressure groups have learnt that the surest route to the heart of Congress is through their constituents” – Martin Harrop.
• UK: Parliament is not a happy hunting ground for pressure groups.
  • In recent years, pressure groups have attempted to lobby the Lords as peers are not whipped to toe the party line.

Lobbying The Executive:

• PG focus on the executive in the UK as this is where power lies.
• Policy specific groups tend to focus their efforts on the relevant governmental department e.g NEU to Damian Hinds.
• Structural: The separation of powers as opposed to the fusion of powers and the dominance of the government in the UK is the most important factor that affects the different ways pressure groups operate in the two countries.

Lobbying The Judiciary:

• Difference between lobbying in both countries as they have different political important in each country.
• “In countries in which the Constitution provides the courts with a formal role of judicial review, activists will use the courts more readily” – Watts 2008
• Structurally this method of lobbying is much more established in the USA than in the UK
• In the USA groups spend vast amounts of time and money to lobby the judiciary.
• Culturally: PGs have a long history of lobbying the Supreme Court and has been a key player in landmark decisions.
• Structurally: In the UK, Parliament is sovereign so there is no such thing as lobbying the judiciary even with the introduction of the new Supreme Court.
  • This may change in the future as opportunities arise but the UK court lacks the same political clout of names in Washington. The balance will therefore remain the same.

Grassroots Activity:

• Important in both countries.
  • Seek to influence in the media and to use celebrity endorsement where possible.
• Structurally: In the UK political parties are seen as more disciplined so PG focus their attention on the two main parties.
• Structurally: In the USA, parties are looser federation of state parties so influence will be aimed more at the branches of government themselves.

US Pressure Groups - Comparing UK/US Pressure Groups

• Pressure Groups in the USA have more opportunity to influence than their UK counterparts

Electioneering & Endorsing:

• Lots more elective posts in the USA than the UK. As both houses in the USA are re-elected every 2-3 years whilst in the UK only one house is elected and that is every 5 years.
• Then in the USA, there are lots of federal elections which groups can influence whilst in the UK there are no such elections
• This means that in the USA, pressure groups have more opportunities for influence than their UK counterparts.

Trade Unions & Business:

• Business and organised labour groups gravitate towards the Republican and Democrat party
• In the UK most labour MPs have links to a trade union either as a member or because the union made a donation to them whereas in the US this is not the case.
• Figures from 2000 show that in the 29% of employees are members of a trade union whereas, in the USA, this figure is just 13%. This has significant implications for workers lobbying powers.

Lobbying The Legislature:

• British Parliament is more controlled by the executive whereas in the USA this is not the case
• Martin Harrop said that pressure groups use other members of Congress to get what they want
• In the UK, pressure groups do not sway MPs, they may instead raise questions in PMQs but they will not ‘vote’ for that group
• HOL may ask questions because they are not under a constraint from the party

Lobbying The Executive:

• In the UK, pressure groups focus on the executive and policy specific groups target a government department
• In the USA, the same is done via the congressional committee.
• The fusion and separation of powers are how this is done as it affects the way pressure groups operate.

Lobbying The Judiciary:

• Watts said if the Constitution provides the courts with more balance then pressure groups will see them and influence them. This was seen via the vast amounts of money spent lobbying the federal courts
• In the US, lobbying the supreme court has paved the way for equal rights
• In the UK, this is not the case as Parliament is supreme but pressure groups may find opportunities in the future.

US Pressure Groups - Power & Impact of Pressure Groups

Power Of Pressure Groups:

• Environmental Protection: At the end of the 19^th century, environmental conversation became important with groups such as the Sierra Club and National Wildlife Federation by lobbying to get tighter laws for environmental protection
• Women's Rights: National Organisation Of Women unsuccessfully pushed for the passage of equal rights. They remain active in US politics by campaigning for equal pay and less sexual harassment. They also donate money for women looking to start in politics
• Abortion Rights: Pro-choice pressure group have fought to preserve the constitutional rights of women whereas pro-life fight to narrow and overturn it. Recently have been involved in the partial birth abortion case
• Economic Inequality: International Occupy Movement to address the issue of economic inequality. They protest and made it popular as some called as "democratic awakening for America". Obama when he was first elected sympathised with them due to their core beliefs.

The Impact Of Pressure Groups On Government:

• Lobbying Members Of Congress: PG make direct contact with members of Congress, by visiting any PG website you can find your local member of Congress to lobby
• Lobbying Congressional Committees: Most works of legislative lobbyists is directed at committees. Standing committees have significant power to amend legislation which they consider during the legislative process. Because there are so few members, it is easy to build relationships with a member interested in your policy. Committee staff are also important "it is better than taking to a member of Congress"
• Organising Constituents: They organise people to write, telephone, email or visit a member of Congress to express support or opposition. Most likely to occur before a high-profile meeting representing others.
• Publicising Voting Records & Endorsing Candidates: Groups publish the voting records of HOR and Senate members. At election time they endorse supportive and oppose non-supportive incumbents by fundraising and media advertising.

Impacts Of Pressure Groups On The Executive:

• Seek to main strong ties with the executive, especially the case with regulatory work of the federal government e.g health and safety
• Ashbee and Ashford identify another close link between labour unions seeking protections for workers for example

Impact Of Pressure Groups On The Judiciary:

• Groups taken an active interest in the nominations the POTUS makes to the courts.
• PG hopes to have members who support what they do
• They present work to the courts to try and get them to change the laws e.g Transgender students’ rights in Virginia.

Arguments For & Against Pressure Groups:
For:	Against:
They provide legislators and bureaucrats with useful information and act as a sounding board for legislators at the policy formulation stage in the legislative process	Revolving Door Syndrome: The practice by which former members of Congress (or the executive) take up well-paid jobs with Washington based lobbying firms, using their expertise and contacts to lobby their previous institution. Seen as an abuse of power.
They bring some kind of order to the policy debate, aggregating views and channelling the wishes of the clients and members whom they seek to represent	Iron-Triangle Syndrome: A strong relationship between pressure groups, the relevant congressional committees and the relevant government department which attempts to achieve mutually beneficial policy outcomes.
They broaden the opportunities for participation in a democracy	Inequality Of Groups: The elite in which everyone works together to influence policy. They argue that because each ground represent the interests of their own clients they are a democratic society.
Increase levels of accountability for both Congress and for the executive branch	Special Interests Vs Public Interest: Pressure groups tend to put the interests of a small ground before the interests of society. Spend too much time fighting for their special interests and little time working for public interests e.g PG for ethnic groups can also lead to group stereotyping.
Increase opportunities for representation between elections as well as offering opportunities for minority views to be represented that would be lost in the big tent of political parties	Buying Political Influence: Edward Kennedy said ‘America has the finest Congress money can buy’. You ‘pay to play’. Lobbyists tend to write the first draft of a bill according to Elizabeth Drew.
Enhance the two fundamental rights of freedom of speech and association.	Using Direct Action: Deemed as inappropriate. They use violence to pursue their political agenda such as anti-abortion groups and in recent times Black Lives Matter has trodden a narrow path between peaceful protest and violence.

US Pressure Groups - NRA Case Study & Gun Control with the NRA

Gun Control:

• The NRA is arguably one of the most powerful pressure groups in the USA with membership of up to 3 million
• Formed in 1871 dedicated to teaching Americans how to use guns, then in the 1960s it became influential in stopping what it seeks as a "encroachment on citizens right to own and use legal firearms"
• Wants to keep the second amendment "right to bear arms" and it also works to oppose tougher gun control laws
• Has opposed the law on background checks and trigger locks
• Became involved in national debate after Sandy Hook shooting

How Much Influence Does The NRA Have On Gun Control Debate In Congress:
Democratic Members Of Congress:	Republican Members Of Congress:
“NRA has been effective in ensuring that there has been relatively little gun control debate in recent years”	“Few if any interest groups are in the same league as the NRA. They are well funded, are committed and have active grassroots networks and members of Congress both fear and respect them as apolitical force”
“The NRA “own Congress”	“The NRA has influenced gun control because the majority of American agree with their principles”
“You can’t even discuss the issue with rationality within Congress thanks to the NRA let alone bring in tougher gun controls”	“The NRA is the best single issue lobby group in politics bar none”
“The NRA own the republican party”	“Their membership is vast and deep and protecting our constitutional rights is an important advocacy”
“Members are afraid to upset the NRA”

What The American People Think Of Guns:
For Gun Control:	Against Gun Control:
“You don’t want gun control until you’ve been shot at, then your perspective changes, no body realises what goes through you”	“I believe in a right to defend my life” There are so many criminals in the world that we need guns to protect ourselves “It takes a good guy with a gun to stop a bad guy with a gun”
“Once you bring in one restriction, it can be built upon and a total ban can be bought further down the line”	“I use guns for something else e.g. hunting bear population because the population density is out of control”
President Trump’s suggestion of allowing teachers to bear arms will “create more of a problem”	“Raising the age of consent to buy to 21 will not help as it the parents responsibility to secure their guns and not to store loaded guns”
	“You already need a license to have a handgun” – this is enough “control”

NRA Website:

• Founded in 1871 with the primary goal to “promote and encourage rifle shooting on a scientific basis”
• A practice range was made but the NRA was forced to find a new range
• In 1903, the NRA begun to promote shooting sports among the youth in America
• Before WW2 the NRA were committed to training, education and marksmanship
• After WW2 the NRA concentrated its efforts on a much needed arena for education and training
• Law enforcement was next on the priority list and a NRA Police Firearms program was created to make sure guns were being used in the correct manner.
• The NRA foundation was provided a means to raise millions of dollars to fund gun safety and educational projects
• “They get what they want over time” former Clinton spokesperson George Stephanopoulos.

US Pressure Groups - Introduction & Pluralism in Pressure Groups

• Pluralism: A theory that political power does not rest simply with the electorate or the governing elite but it is distributed among groups representing widely different interests.
• Truman stated that politics could be understood only by studying the way different groups interacted with one another
• Mills argued that the USA was ruled by a small governing elite and so ordinary Americans had no control over how they were governed
• Robert Dahl argued that US society was pluralist not elitist
• Elitist: A theory that political power rests with a small group who gain power through wealthy family status or intellectual superiority
• Dhal claimed that democracy was no “50+1” but one where a group had a high probability to get itself heard in a critical stage in the process
• To Dhal, democracy was about compromise – compromise between competing groups.

Types Of Pressure Group:

Sectional Groups:

• A pressure group organized to promote the interest of a profession or business
• They are therefore business and trade union groups such as the American Business Conference or the US Chamber of Commerce who represent thousands of different trade such as truck drivers
• Americans might join a group that represents individual with a common gender, ethnic, religious or social characteristic such as the National Organisation For Women.

Causal Groups:

• Campaign for a particular cause or issue.
• Americans are more likely to join one of these rather than a trade union
• They protest and petition and march more than other countries.
• May be a single interest group such as the NRA or Mothers Against Drunk Driving.
• Single-Interest Group: A pressure group created in response to a specific issue in order to promote policies that the group desires concerning that issue.
• Think tanks are another causal group who conduct research and write articles on policy. They have a particular ideological stance such as the Institute For Policy Studies.

Case Study – National Organisation For Women:

• Founded for women, they want equal rights for men and women
• They also want advanced rights as well as equal rights for immigrants who are women coming into America
• They want to make sure sexual criminal offences are treated with care and the people behind them are put into jail for the correct amount of time.

Functions Of Pressure Groups:

1. Representation: A place where US citizens can have their views expressed and their grievances articulated. Provide an easy channel of easy access through which ordinary citizens can voice their opinions. A way for everyone to have their views represented in all three branches of government.
2. Citizen Participation: Increase the opportunities for ordinary citizens to participate in the decision-making process between elections. Offer an opportunity to participate in a specific policy area e.g guns.
3. Public Education: Attempt to educate public opinion, warning people of possible dangers if issues are not addressed
4. Agenda Building: They attempt to influence the agenda of political parties to give into the members interests. Attempt to bring people together to achieve a common interest.
5. Programme Monitoring: May scrutinise and hold the government to account with policy and make sure the right promises are fulfilled. The NRA for example, may bring such unbroken promises to the federal courts.

Methods Used By Pressure Groups:

1. Electioneering And Endorsement: Groups actively support or oppose presidential and congressional candidates on the basis of the candidates positions on the policy areas of concern to them e.g pro-choice group NARAL endorsed Clinton in 2016
2. Lobbying: When members meet politicians and tell them their concerns. Done in offices in Washington DC, state capitals and other major cities e.g K Street Corridor.
3. Voting Cues And Scorecards: Some groups meet with politicians to make sure that they are taking the right stance on a particular issue.
4. Organising Grassroot Activities: Thought to be the most effective methods. This is done via social media by calling the media, calling Congress. Can also be done via protesting. Encouraged to send verbal protests by sending an email or letter to a congressman