Conservatism - More Detailed Notes

Origins of Conservativism:

• A reaction to the politics of Enlightenment, a notion that there was an ideal society which should be reached.
• Revolutionary change (e.g French Revolution) had been shocking and proved that it was possible to accept reform whilst rejecting revolution.
• The French Revolution paved the way for a new ideology, one that would respect the case for change whilst warning of its dangers.
• Promotes the idea of changing to conserve: Changing traditional institutions (e.g the Lords) should be opposed. Change should be incremental on what works in order to conserve what is valuable.

Human Nature:

1. Pessimistic as being described as the “politics of imperfection” where humans are fragile and fallible. This meant that conservatives (unlike socialists) deny that human nature is malleable but there is no chance of a utopian society. This is held by thinkers such as Burke who said life was “nasty, brutish and short” therefore utopia cannot exist. This is a direct criticism of socialism which views human nature as malleable where humans can be shaped by social circumstances and thus socialism.
2. Other traditional conservatives such as Burke hold the view that human nature is sceptical and agree that human nature is neither flawless nor able to be perfected. This meant that humans would naturally gain comfort and support from ‘little platoons’ but this could only happen if humans were informed by custom and tradition. This is best seen in the UK cabinet which deals with problems as they arise through mainly tradition.
3. New right thinkers such as Rand and Nozick took a more conservative-liberal view by claiming humans were positive seeing humans as rational who are dignified. This is significant as it underpinned the politics of faith vs the politics of scepticism focusing above human potential. However, this went against the traditional conservative view but was seen to be an updated version of ‘little platoons’ but saw a movement for changing to conserve which is a core conservative idea as humans take peace and stability in human affairs.

Society:

1. Traditional conservatives believe in paternalism and noblesse oblige through natural society. With natural hierarchy as conservatives believe “the wiser and stronger” establish a hierarchy so that even ‘little platoons’ have a top-down structure. Indeed this was the view held by Theresa May earlier during her tenure ship. This means that society is traditional as this forms the common basis of society. Any risk to this would be damaging to society. However, by far this goes against the socialist view of society where people are shaped and are products of the society they are born into leading to a “false conscienceless.”
2. Shared values and morals are held by religion with its belief in original sin and Judaeo-Christian morality. This meant that conservatives held a strong view on marriage, nuclear family and accountable actions and punishments such as policing. A Conservative such as David Cameron stretched this elastic by legalising same-sex marriage on account that it was still marriage under Judaeo-Christian morality. However, this goes against the view liberals hold where the individual was sovereign.
3. New right thinkers such as Rand and Nozick believe in an atomist society where they challenged the view of organic society. Individuals would now pursue their own ends thus bringing human progress. This would mean that society had no right to impose itself on the person through tradition and custom such as religion. The individual would now be free to make their own rational choices. Whilst this was incline with the liberal view, it goes against socialist thinkers such as Giddens who believes that the importance of community would be felt.

The State:

1. Promotes order and security. Unlike socialism which sees the state as progressive serving towards an end goal, conservatives sees the state as a form of disciplinary function. This was the view held by Hobbes and could be implemented through the social contract which allows society to thrive. Burke, said the contract was between the “living, dead and yet to be born” and the state would emerge gradually. This meant that individual rights was entirely dependent on law and order which only the state can provide.
2. Emphasise a state based on nationhood. For all conservative thinkers, the nation is now a mega-community, one that enfolded all classes and therefore provided a natural basis for the state. This means that the state defines the nation hence the weighted importance on the Constitutions and monarchy (all of which are traditional). This also explains why British conservatives have limited appetite for the European Union and voted for the UK’s departure. However, this goes against the liberal view that the individual is sovereign.
3. New Right conservatives reject the welfare state on account that it creates a dependency culture giving those who have contributed nothing towards society a boost up. This means that the state should be small, existing for national security. However, this goes against the socialist view of the state which proses that the welfare state is fair because it brings about political and economic change through progressive tax.

The Economy:

1. Support for capitalism is nuanced as conservativism worships order, stability and continuity yet capitalism promotes risk, innovation and iconoclasm. This is because conservatives have a pessimistic view of capitalism and thus they fear radical change which may threaten dreadful outcomes. This means that for traditional conservatives such as Burke, supporting laissez-faire capitalism cannot occur as this is inconsistent with conservativism’s scepticism. However, this goes against the classical liberal belief held by Mill that the market is best when laissez-faire capitalism is allowed.
2. Most conservatives support a moderated form of capitalism in which the free markets are tempered by state intervention (protectionism). This meant that protection of national producers would be met bringing emphasis on the one nation and a Keynesian approach could be taken. However, this goes against the socialist view held by Marx that capitalism was just a committee for the working class which should be replaced to reach “the end of history.”
3. New Right thinkers such as Rand and Nozick held a more sympathetic view of the economy and capitalism. It was even referred to as Reganomics and Thatcherism which aimed to free the economy by rolling back the state. This meant that it promoted popular capitalism and destroyed socialism by bringing greater funding spending on the police and armed forces which is the prime order for society – to bring order and security. In this way the economy complemented the state. However, this went against the socialist thinker view of Gidden who believed that capitalism would remove poverty rather than bring order and security.

Traditional Conservativism:

• Hierarchy: Natural in society
• Paternalism: Government should act like a father its children. Governing in best interests. Deference to leaders
• Order: Government provides clear rules, discipline and guidance to ensure that society is ordered, peaceful and stable
• Freedom: Some institutions place limits on freedom which reminds us that freedom is limited as good behaviour cannot be reciprocated e.g partly for breaking the law
• Social Attitudes: Moral values (nuclear family and marriage) that have provided stability and certainty. Freedom needs to be limited to protect this.
• ‘Little Platoons’: Community with a sense of security, order and stability. Centralisation would be damaging to society
• Change to conserve: Change and reform must be gradual and respect the wisdom of tradition
• Empiricism: Focus on what works (tradition and attitudes). Pragmatic and flexible in approaching political problems.

One Nation Conservativism:

• Threat of Disorder: Emerged from the treat to the order of the state and society from socialism.
• One Nation: Emphasise and focus on the bonds of affection and trust that holds society. All classes and group are part of one nation. Damage to one part will damage the whole society. ‘The palace is not safe when the cottage is not happy.
• Change to Conserve: Disraeli accepted the rise of big cities but was concerned with the effects on society of the unchecked free market. Did not want reactionary politics but rather tackle the worst consequences of the market in order to conserve society because reform was an inoculation against revolution
• Paternalism: The wealthy have a responsibility to the less well-off. Involves state intervention in the economy and society to ensure social stability

New Right Conservativism:

• Small state: Rand’s idea of ‘morality of rational self-interest. The state needs to be rolled back and limited but with national security at the heart. Opposes public spending as it unjust and creates a dependency culture.
• Free Market Capitalism: Market forces are the best method for the distribution and management of society’s resources. Cut taxes, privatise, deregulation and tight restrictions on government spending
• Society: Divided between neo-conservatives who wish to return to a society build around authority and neo-liberals who advocate a society built around individual choice. Neo-conservatives are anti-permissive: Rejection of permissiveness – making moral choices. This will protect national security. Neo-liberals want the state to intervene but only when needed. Relaxed about immigration as free market = free movement.

Thomas Hobbes:

• Concept of human nature/laws of nature: His view of human nature is perhaps the most gloomy and cynical as he sees humans are endlessly restless in their pursuit of power to satisfy our desires. Humans are also equal in strength – “The weakest has the strength enough to kill the strongest”
• State of nature/natural law: In the state of nature, resources are scarce therefore life would be “nasty, brutish and short”. But the first natural law is to find peace and if not, man should war. Because humans are rational, the people should rise above the state of nature by agreeing to submit their individual desires to the absolute authority of the sovereignty.
• Power of the sovereign: Social contract establishes a sovereign with power to provide order, stability and security which would lead to the emergence of society. This was key as it meant that all power was held in one person (preferably a Monarchy). Contract is made just between the people, not the people and the sovereign. The people have only the rights the sovereign gives.

Edmund Burke:

• Whig Principals: Opposition to absolute, arbitrary power.
• American & French Revolutions: Supported American Revolution because its aim was to protect the rights which existed before London attacked them. Opposed French Revolution as it aimed to destroy the collective wisdom of ages by throwing out existing institutions. French Revolution destroyed the contract.
• Human Nature: Sceptical view of human nature where humans cannot rely on rationalism but could rely on tradition and custom. Opposed social contract but said there was a contract between the dead, living and yet to be born where the living must nurture and protect tradition and pass it along generations.
• Society: Little platoons that would deal with political problems as they arise. Society is therefore organic and it develops naturally.

Michael Oakeshott:

• Tradition/Criticism of rationalism: Rationalism remade society based on abstract ideas which will always fail as they are not based on concrete evidence. Therefore a pragmatic approach is needed (“familiar to the unknown”)
• Politics of faith vs scepticism: Rejected that people had faith in the government to improve the conditions of mankind. Scepticism saw the government’s attempt to perfect mankind are dangerous for human liberty and dignity. Government are human like us and can make mistakes but they can use their power to limit public order. Purpose of government was to “keep afloat in uncertain waters”

Ayn Rand:

• Opposition to collectivism: Supporting the view of atomism: Society is a collection of individuals pursuing their own lives. Rather than what socialists believe.
• Rational & ethical egoism individual rights: Basis of new morality. Objectivism. Selfishness does not mean doing as you please, rather it means humans must pursue their own happiness as the moral aim and prosper by treating others as individuals.

Robert Nozick:

• Functions of the state: Minimal state is justified but only if it is limited to the protection of the person, property and contract. Mirrors the view that the state needs to be strong but limited to provide order for liberty. Allows for communities with their own morals and values to be formed. They enter a contract which allows the lives to be fully explored.
• Inequalities of wealth: Individual should be able to keep the fruits of their labour. Wilt Chamberlain argument that he can keep his money because it was his own labour and the contract was freely entered into. This meant that some people had more than others but this was ok because they had worked hard for their labour.

Conservatism - Core Basic Notes

Origins:

• Enlightenment, French & American Revolution. All three went too far and was too radical and so it would be better to conserve rather than change.

Main beliefs:

• If conservatism is actually an ideology
• Government is paramount to conservative thought – it is traditional and provides order. Limited in size but preserve the one nation.
• Free market is central to a thriving economy that can provide wealth for all.
• Freedom and choice are important but the state is needed to provide order and stability for this freedom and choice to exist.

Traditional Conservatives:

• Belief in hierarchy and paternalism where the government provides clear order and rules on how to act. This is upheld through social attitudes such as marriage that provide stability and certainty.
• Society is a series of little platoons that deal with political problems as they arise
• Belief in change to conserve
• Focus on empiricism – focus on what is rather than what can be.

New Right:

• Belief in small state which needs to be rolled back with limited public spending on welfare
• Free market is best for management of resources with lots of privatisation and cuts in tax to return to capitalism.
• Society divided between neo-conservatives who believe in anti-permissiveness (rejection of permissiveness which is a liberal belief that people should make their own moral choices. The state can provide order)
  • Neo-liberals who believe that individual choices are more important to bring a stripped state

Conservatism - Summary, Tensions & Today

	Human Nature:	The State:	Society:	The Economy
Thomas Hobbes:	Cynical individuals are selfish, driven by restlessness and ruthlessness desire for supremacy and security	The state should arise contractually from individuals who seek order and security. To serve its purpose the state must be autocratic and awesome.	There can be no society until the creation of the state that brings order and authority to human affairs. Life is ‘nasty, brutish and short.’	Constructive and enduring economic activity is impossible without a state guaranteeing order and security.
Edmund Burke:	Sceptical, ‘the crooked timber of humanity’ is marked by a gap between aspiration and achievement. May conceive perfection but unable to achieve it.	Should arise organically and should be aristocratic, driving by the hereditary elite reared to rule in the interest of all	Organic and multi-facetted compromising a host of small communities – ‘little platoons’	Trade should involve organic free markets and laissez-faire capitalism.
Michael Oakeshott:	Modest. Humanity is at its best when free from grand designs and when focused on the routines of the everyday elite	Should be guided by traditions and practical concerns pragmatism not dogmatism. Should be its watchword/	Localised commentaries are essential to humanities survival especially when guided by short term interests rather than abstract ideas	Free markets are volatile and unpredictable and may require pragmatic moderation by the state.
Ayn Rand:	Objectivistic, we are and ought to be guided by rational self-interest and the pursuit of self-fulfilment.	State should confine itself to law, order and national security. Postrave liberty through state intervention should be resisted	Atomistic. Any attempt to restrict individuals in the name of society should be changed	Free market capitalism is an expression of objectivism. Individualistic and should not be hindered by the state.
Robert Nozick:	Egotistical individuals are driven by a quest for self-ownership allowing them to realise their full potential.	Miniarchist state should merely outsource, renew and reallocate contracts to private companies providing public services	Geared to the individual’s self-fulfilment. Leads to small communities reflecting them members diverse tastes and philosophies.	Miniarchist state should detach itself from a privatised and deregulated economy merely arbitrating disputes between private economic organisation.

Tensions:

• Human Nature: Traditional conservatives e.g. Burke take a sceptical view of human nature drawing the gap between aspiration and achievement whilst warning against the grand, utopian schemes of progressive politics. The French and American revolutions have misread human potential. The New Right take a more optimistic approach by what humans may achieve. Pro-capitalist economy environment where individuals’ energies are unleashed.
• Society: Traditional conservatives see society as little platoons overseen by a hierarchical structure in which the elite govern over the majority where society should emerge organically. New Right are ambivalent about society and its existence drawing upon the libertarian belief that society is a collection of atomised individuals seeking self-determination. New Right want a society that is defined by those who have achieved rather than inherited power and status. A society that is meritocratic rather than aristocratic.
• The State: Traditional conservatives defend a state in which political power is wielded by those who are born to rule. The state should have a natural ruling class reared to the principals of duty and sacrifice. New Right wish to ‘roll back the frontiers of the state’ so they can advance freedom and reverse the dependency culture. They fear the ruling classes have too much power and are reluctant to admit the need for radical change.
• The Economy: Traditional conservatives are keen to defend an economy based on private ownership but sceptical about free market capitalism as it may threaten the one nation and fuel support for socialism. A more cosmopolitan society could erode national identity and national culture. More state intervention through Keynesian economic, higher tax and high public spending on state welfare. New Right advocate free market economies where state functions are privatised and regulate, and levels of tax are reduced.

Conservatism Today:

• As the economy becomes volatile, the appeal for more traditional conservative stance is higher than ever.
• An illustration of this has been seen in the shift of focus into the states responsibilities. Growth of terrorism and problems with mass migration has prompted a change to order, safety and security where the state is more authoritative. Hobbes may be proud of this.
• There isn’t a huge renewed interest in socialism and their reluctance for state intervention may be sparking the end for hard-socialism and more neo-liberal matters.
• David Cameron tried to adapt little platoons into big society where there a big society but a small state.
• Indeed the most conservative movement in the UK has been the move out of Europe as it yearns for a greater sense of national identity and form a government that is national, not continental. There may even be a similar pattern of change in Europe and the USA.
• Not all Conservatives wanted to leave the EU though.
• Many Conservatives have argued for a new brand of politics dubbed ‘blue labour’ linking left-wing themes like equality and social justice to conservative themes like ‘family, faith and flag’. Donald Trump may spark the creation of this as he wishes to protect the US economy by curbing the free markets, with a desire for national interest rather than global capitalism.
• Conservatism is persistent and adaptable, rooted in importance of custom, habit, community and kinship. Change may be constant and inevitable yet the desire to change is one that should be respected.
• Tradition and identity will always be present and shows no signs of decaying. Maybe the lesson of the UKs 2016 referendum on the EU was that a Conservative PM was punished for not being conservative in an increasingly conservative era.

Conservatism - New Right & Thinkers

American Export:

• Conservatism was defined by much of Western Europe as a combination of social conservatism and economic liberalism.
• Conservatives stressed order, authority and traditional communities their support for private property and capitalism was tempered by a fear that market forces could generate inequalities that would outrage most of the working class.
• UK had a support for a more Keynesianism model whilst in the USA, there was much more emphasis on individual freedom and laissez-faire capitalism, private property and minimal government that emerged organically after the discovery of the New World.
• These traditions were liberal in nature stemming from the individualistic values of the Founding Father and a Constitution. Some of these ideas developed into Christian Democracy
• American conservatism had always invaded a synthesis between classical liberalism and social conservatism.

Crisis of Traditional Conservatism:

• The UK in the 1970s were in a lot of trouble: 3-day week, coal miners strike, trade unions with too much power, winter of discontent, sick man of Europe, spiralling inflation, unemployment and unsustainable welfare spending.
• The post-war consensus involving Keynesian economics, state welfare and social liberalism was no longer working especially whilst resisting socialism.
• Thatcher and Regan were the only two to try and bypass traditional thinking and the Christian Democracy way of thinking.

What Are the Key Features of New Right Conservatism, Is It Two-Dimensional:

• A more neo-liberal and neo-conservative look at the ideologies
• Neo-liberals had a focus on the individuals by ‘rolling back the frontiers’ of the state in order to create a free market economy leading to economic growth and a vibrant society
• Neo-liberals: Reduction in tax, control of government spending, end of dependency culture, privatisation, neutering of bodies e.g. trade unions
• Neo-conservatism confused on restoring authority, national identity and religion
• Neo-conservatives: Tough approach to law and order, robust national approach, less tolerant approach to immigration, reversal of social policies e.g. abortion and homosexuality with promotion of family structures.

Contradictory Doctrine:

• Some argue that New Right was a betrayal of traditional conservatism because it mixes neo-liberalism and neo-conservatism.
• Neo-liberals want to roll back the frontiers of the state (privatisation), neo-conservatives want to roll the frontiers of the state forward (restriction of trade unions)
• Neo-liberals want to advance individual liberty (income tax cuts) whilst neo-conservatives want to restrict it (police stop and search)
• Neo-liberals are more relaxed about immigration and see it as a side effect of free markets, neo-conservatives are wary of it (swamping traditional cultures)
• Neo-liberals want to minimise government spending, neo-conservatives are prepared to increase it to strengthen the nation’s profile (UK’s nuclear deterrent)

Complimentary Doctrine:

• New Right Conservative was a ‘liberal mugged by reality. Liberals have such an optimistic view of human nature that It fails to anticipate the tensions arising from a free market capitalist society where strong authority is required.
• For low taxation, neo liberals would have to reduce the levels of state spending on welfare but there would have be some more support where neo-conservatives argue that traditional morality would lead to the restoration of supportive families and altruistic responsibility from community would privatise compassion and social security weakening the state’s obligations
• Neo-conservatives wish to strengthen the state by reinforcing the police and armed forces which requires state funding, but neo-liberals claim this becomes easier once state spending has been reduced in other areas through rolling back the frontiers of the state.

Key Thinker 4: Ayn Rand:

• Talented individuals rather than ambitious governments lay at the heart of any successful society. Without this, the state would wither away no matter how much is spent.
• A core belief that everyone should be guided by self-interest and rational self-fulfilment
• Associated with atomism: Human beings seeking autonomy and space leading to a vague sense of society.
  • Each individual would seek self-fulfilment and self-realisation. Did not justify society but was ideally just a loose collection of independent individuals.
• The New Right should strongly support the laissez-faire brand of capitalism and renewal of negative liberty proving justification for rolling back the frontiers of the state and tax cuts
• Defended free markets and homosexuality with a ‘right to choose’ stance. Rejected anarchism claiming that free markets were needed
• Liberty was impossible without order and security which only a state could provide for. “the small state is the strong state”

Key Thinker 5: Robert Nozick:

• Developed many of the ideas condensed into neo-liberalism.
• The growth of government was a threat to individual freedom and the growth of the welfare state fostered a dependency culture.
• He thought the individual should be left alone not just in the economic sphere (as neo-liberals and all new right would argue) but in social and cultural spheres. Therefore, he takes an relaxed view on homosexuality, abortion etc.
• He was not a true anarchist in that he believed in a miniarchist state – one that mainly involved outsourcing public services to private companies.
• Optimistic view of human nature which seemed to be more anarchistic than conservative where “tax is theft” indicates an upbeat view that individuals have self-ownership and they are the sole owners of their talents and abilities should be left alone.
• Believed the society should predate the state but liberty and property ‘could not be taken for granted without some formal authority enforcing laws
• A limited state was not to facilitate raw individualism and free market capitalism. Instead, self-sufficient communities should emerge alongside the extension of individual freedom. Each of these communities would be free to practise moral does and values, including ones that may be socialist or anti-Christian. An more upbeat version of ‘little platoons’ from Burke.

Conservatism - Traditional Conservatism & Edmund Burke

• A creed that spans over two centuries and has evolved with changing circumstances. Conservatism has just two stands, traditional and new right.

Aftermath of the French Revolution:

• Origins of Conservative thinking was in reaction to the French revolution by offering a radical interpretation of Enlightenment values
• Conservatives were concerned about the effects this may have upon their own security however, it was Edmund Burke who first noted what this objection meant.
• Some argued that Burke thesis was just justification for the existing society, one which the ruling class were interested in.
• However, Tory PMs such as Robert Peel, Canning and William Pitt were conservative in their policy practice e.g. order and property as well antipathy to revolutionary change
• Change to conserve was a core idea which was seen throughout many of the Tory governments in the early 19^th century – governments who wanted to spread revolutionary change by embracing moderate reform for continuity.
• Canning supported Catholic emancipation and passed legislation allowing Roman Catholics in Parliament, as well as the abolition of slavery which brought property ownership in disrepute.
• Robert Peel offered another look on change to conserve by supporting the Great Reform Act of 1832 ensuring representation of the industrial towns. Peel was worried that without them, there was a great danger that they would be harnessed to property-less forces with no vested interest in the status-quo.
• Peel also established the policing force leading to similar forces across the country. He asserted that “without security there can be no liberty” effectively updating what Hobbes said about the strength of the state between order and authority.

Key Thinker #2: Edmund Burke:

• Dubbed the father of conservativism, supported the American and French revolution but had slight disagreements over the nature of them.
• Supported Adam Smith but was a tad reluctant.
• Created many tenants of Conservative thoughts such as human imperfection, empiricism, tradition and localism.
• He thought that human nature would be fallible (making mistakes) and denounced the French Revolution as it had created a utopian society which was unrealistic.
• Change should proceed based on fact and experience (empiricism and tradition). Society and the government were akin to a plant than machine which needed lots of paling and growth where in context, change should be cautious and organic.
• Criticised the French Revolution by arguing that an equal state would eventually lead to ruling class. Whilst he praised the society of ‘little platoons’ which were autonomous he hated the highly central state already place. He also argued that the French Revolution would disregard history and tradition.

Is Conservative A Ruling Class Ideology:
Yes:	No:
Claim is made regularly by fundamentalist socialists such as Webb and revisionist socialists like Crosland.	The maintenance of order to one that appeals to all sections of society.
Those who claim this, cite Burke but he attacked the French Revolution whilst defending aristocratic rule.	Love of habit and order has echoes within all sections of society
Since Burke, Conservatives have defended property and inequality	Traditional Conservatives promote interests for the poor to ensure to maintain the one nation
Paternalism is merely an attempt to make inequality and elitists palatable to the majority	During periods of revolutionary upheaval, it is society’s most vulnerable who suffer
Stress on tradition prevents radical change.	New Right is meritocratic identifying all talents.

The Emergence of the One Nation:

• The threat of disorder and insurrection persisted throughout the 19^th century which were fuelled by greater demands for democracy in the UK political system.
• Disraeli and Bismarck sensed that socialism with its stress upon class conflict was beginning to take over and it was a threat to stability and tradition.
• They understood that orderly change would have to be refined and social cohesion and orderly change were needed to offset class politics introduced and encouraged by Marx
• This led to the importance of the nation which was ironic because up until the 19^th century, nationalism had been associated with anti-monarchism. The nation was anything but a conservative concept.
• Disraeli embraced class differences but in a way that brought unity rather than rupture. This went against one-nation Conservative
• One-Nation Conservative: Denotes a belief that conservatism should prioritise national unity by attending to the condition of society’s poorer classes. It has been used by Conservative politicians to justify greater state intervention in society and the economy as well as higher public spending and tax.
• Disraeli and Bismarck argued that society’s classes were in fact, all members of the same national family and that revolutionary politics represented an attack on the nation itself. Disraeli argued that the nation was not al alternative to the status quo but the essence of the status quo where all classes were interested in defending the nation state.
• He updated Burke’s notion or organic affinity where the aristocracy had a paternalistic duty to ‘elevate the conditions of the poor’, once this had been recognised there could be social and political progress without a bloody revolution. ‘The palace is not safe when the cottage is not happy’
• Philanthropy would not work, and state-sponsored social reform is needed which would distinguish conservatism from classical liberals.
• One nation became associated with legislation that tempered with the effects of laisse-faire capitalism resulting in the Factory Act 1874 which restricted the rights of factory owners and landlords. Bismarck’s conservatism led to the imposition of tariffs and import controls confirming traditional conservatism’s ambivalent attitude to free market capitalism.

Response to Egalitarianism and Fascism:

• During the 20^th century, political debate was reshaped by two events: the spread of socialism and the emergence of fascism.
• Many conservatives regarded the existence of the Soviet Union as the most powerful example of the threat now posed by egalitarianism – an ideology based on enfolding socialism and communism challenging the belief in property and hierarchy.
• In the UK this fear was underlined by an extension of the franchise and the growth of the Labour Party. Many Conservatives commonly said that socialism and communism were inevitable unless stern political action was taken.
• Traditional conservatives looked to sustain a society based on property and inequality, Macmillan spoke of a ‘middle way’ between capitalism and socialism which would address economic inequality whilst respecting property rights, cultural tradition, national identity and other themes close to Conservative hearts.
• It was clear in the 1930s that conservatism was prepared to sanction more state intervention so that privilege can remain, but socialism is stifled. Conservatives supported the Public Health, Housing and Factory Acts which checked market forces in the name of social cohesion and one nation.
• After 1945, conservatism took steps towards the acceptance of big government which seemed to yield many of the ideas held by rival ideologies, notably those of democratic socialism and modern liberalism and thus embraced Keynesianism.
• Some argued that it is was opportunistic and pragmatic and rather reactionary as conservative politicians gave in, to win elections. Many such as Crosland argued that Conservatives now “went along”
• Conservatives argued that the support for Keynesianism was an updated expression of the belief in one nation and paternalism

Christian Democracy:

• Outside of the UK, fascism had developed into violent nationalism and totalitarian governments leading to European politicians developing a new variant of traditional conservatism. There were a few overlaps…
• Belief in Judaeo-Christian morality as a force binding society together; belief in authority and hierarchy; same emphasises upon marriage and family life; scepticism towards free market and acceptance of enlarged state comfortable with Keynesianism.
• Different in its attitude to the nation state due to the fear of Nazism in Germany and many other countries.
• One effect of this was to respond to supranationalism which was later embodied by the EEC and the EU.
• For British conservatives the suspicion has always been that the real aim of Christian democracy’s supranationalism is to eliminate the nation as a feature and instead make the ‘region’ the focus of communal identity. Christian Democracy now became “no-nation conservatism” – Roger Scruton and therefore something for which they feel little about.
• Supranationalism: Refers to a state whose authority cuts across national boundaries. Soviet Union and perhaps the EU are examples of this. British and American conservatives tend to dislike the concept seeing it as a threat to the one-nation.

Key Thinker 3 – Michael Oakeshott:

• Regarded as one of the most important thinkers of the 20^th century bringing a new perspective to the core themes of tradition conservativism. Renowned for his re-interpretation human imperfection.
• Qualify the negative view of human nature associated with Hobbes. He argued that men and women were “fallible but not terrible’ and ‘imperfect but not immoral’. Humanity would still able to secure ‘both pleasure and improvement through the business of everyday life’
• Conservatism seemed more optimistic than socialism and liberalism – who have clear views on how society should be. He claimed that conservatives were reconciled to human imperfection by having a greater appreciation of the pleasures that already exist in life e.g. friends and family. He said they ‘prefer the familiar to the unknown’.
• Affirmed the merits of an empirical and pragmatic approach to politics and life – ‘the art of life’. He argued that through experience, trial and error, wisdom would be achieved.
• State existed to ‘prevent the bad rather than create the good’ restating that the best things in life emerge from routine. “keeping the ship afloat at all costs using experience to negotiate every storm and not fixating on a port that may not exist”
• His cricks on the New Right claimed his philosophy was too fatalistic and underestimates the ability to shape circumstances. For the New Right such as Nozick, the ‘Oakeshott mentality’ was lazy and had allowed socialist ideas to advance unchallenged since 1945.

Is Conservatism Merely the Politics of Pragmatism:
Yes:	No:
Burke said the French revolution was an attack on abstract philosophy claiming it ignored human imperfection.	TCs is based on contentious assertions e.g. slow change is preferable to radical change
TCs have advocated an empirical approach to politics – based on what is not what should be	TCs does not reject revolution as a method of change but does so to protect society’s principals
TCs pride itself on flexibility helping to endure dramatic change	Socialists see conservatives as a ruling class ideology based on changing policies helping the elite
Pragmaticism is shown by the different policies adopted by various conservatives e.g. Peel supporting laissez-faire capitalism and McMillian being a Keynesian	Oakeshott said TCs is a psychology rather than an ideology. Reject pragmatic change if it conflicts with instincts and emotions
Oakeshott argued that conservatism is s short-term ‘getting by’ where it had no long-term objections unlike liberalism and socialism	New Right draws upon neo-liberalism whilst new right politicians such as Thatcher claim themselves ‘conviction politicians.

Conservatism - The Economy

Agreements:

• Capitalism tends to nurture and widen economic inequalities and to sharpen the distinction between the rich and the poor.
• Conservatism defends inequality and hierarchy, it is likely that conservatives’ economies have a pro-capitalist flavour.
• Support Adam Smith and laissez-faire approach.
• Laissez-Faire: The state can have free markets operating freely with economic liberalism which has been supported by Edmund Burke and the New Right with Robert Nozick.

Traditional Approach – Skewing Liberalism:

• Traditional capitalism support has subtle differences as conservatives worship order, stability and continuity whilst capitalism promotes risk, innovation and iconoclasm (order with religion).
• “everything is for the best” may be a liberal view but it scares conservatives as they have a sceptical view of human nature and fear that change can bring dreadful outcomes.
• Traditional conservatives may even be dubbed “reluctant supporters” as they agree that an assault on capitalism is an assault on property, inequality and hierarchy. But they disagree with liberalism that the state should be left alone to wither away. It is generally inconsistent with conservatism pessimism.
• They try and support this through a moderated form of capitalism in which free markets are tempered by state intervention known as protectionism where society and the economy would be insured against state-imposed tariffs and duties. Also consistent with their view on national identity.
• Traditional conservatives were even drawn to Keynesian capitalism where the state managed the market forces for full employment.

The New Right:

• New Right have sympathetic view of free market capitalism through the Thatcher government through privatisation of state-owned industries.
• Yet New Right economies still managed to complement traditional conservatism in several ways.
• Disengaging completely from the economy means the state can focus on its true Hobbesian purpose of order and security
• A free market economy will be prosperous which will bring support for ‘popular capitalism’ whilst destroying socialism but would also fund a greater state spending on the police and armed forces and other agencies vital to the defence of a conservative society.
• Thatcherism: 1979-1990 where Thatcher pursued a controversial mixture of neo-liberal policies such as privatisation and reducing tax along with neo-conservative policies such as strengthening police powers and curbing immigration to bring a more tradit