Origins of Conservativism:
- A reaction to the politics of Enlightenment, a notion that there was an ideal society which should be reached.
- Revolutionary change (e.g French Revolution) had been shocking and proved that it was possible to accept reform whilst rejecting revolution.
- The French Revolution paved the way for a new ideology, one that would respect the case for change whilst warning of its dangers.
- Promotes the idea of changing to conserve: Changing traditional institutions (e.g the Lords) should be opposed. Change should be incremental on what works in order to conserve what is valuable.
Human
Nature:
- Pessimistic as being described as the “politics of imperfection” where humans are fragile and fallible. This meant that conservatives (unlike socialists) deny that human nature is malleable but there is no chance of a utopian society. This is held by thinkers such as Burke who said life was “nasty, brutish and short” therefore utopia cannot exist. This is a direct criticism of socialism which views human nature as malleable where humans can be shaped by social circumstances and thus socialism.
- Other traditional conservatives such as Burke hold the view that human nature is sceptical and agree that human nature is neither flawless nor able to be perfected. This meant that humans would naturally gain comfort and support from ‘little platoons’ but this could only happen if humans were informed by custom and tradition. This is best seen in the UK cabinet which deals with problems as they arise through mainly tradition.
- New right thinkers such as Rand and Nozick took a more conservative-liberal view by claiming humans were positive seeing humans as rational who are dignified. This is significant as it underpinned the politics of faith vs the politics of scepticism focusing above human potential. However, this went against the traditional conservative view but was seen to be an updated version of ‘little platoons’ but saw a movement for changing to conserve which is a core conservative idea as humans take peace and stability in human affairs.
Society:
- Traditional conservatives believe in paternalism and noblesse oblige through natural society. With natural hierarchy as conservatives believe “the wiser and stronger” establish a hierarchy so that even ‘little platoons’ have a top-down structure. Indeed this was the view held by Theresa May earlier during her tenure ship. This means that society is traditional as this forms the common basis of society. Any risk to this would be damaging to society. However, by far this goes against the socialist view of society where people are shaped and are products of the society they are born into leading to a “false conscienceless.”
- Shared values and morals are held by religion with its belief in original sin and Judaeo-Christian morality. This meant that conservatives held a strong view on marriage, nuclear family and accountable actions and punishments such as policing. A Conservative such as David Cameron stretched this elastic by legalising same-sex marriage on account that it was still marriage under Judaeo-Christian morality. However, this goes against the view liberals hold where the individual was sovereign.
- New right thinkers such as Rand and Nozick believe in an atomist society where they challenged the view of organic society. Individuals would now pursue their own ends thus bringing human progress. This would mean that society had no right to impose itself on the person through tradition and custom such as religion. The individual would now be free to make their own rational choices. Whilst this was incline with the liberal view, it goes against socialist thinkers such as Giddens who believes that the importance of community would be felt.
The State:
- Promotes order and security. Unlike socialism which sees the state as progressive serving towards an end goal, conservatives sees the state as a form of disciplinary function. This was the view held by Hobbes and could be implemented through the social contract which allows society to thrive. Burke, said the contract was between the “living, dead and yet to be born” and the state would emerge gradually. This meant that individual rights was entirely dependent on law and order which only the state can provide.
- Emphasise a state based on nationhood. For all conservative thinkers, the nation is now a mega-community, one that enfolded all classes and therefore provided a natural basis for the state. This means that the state defines the nation hence the weighted importance on the Constitutions and monarchy (all of which are traditional). This also explains why British conservatives have limited appetite for the European Union and voted for the UK’s departure. However, this goes against the liberal view that the individual is sovereign.
- New Right conservatives reject the welfare state on account that it creates a dependency culture giving those who have contributed nothing towards society a boost up. This means that the state should be small, existing for national security. However, this goes against the socialist view of the state which proses that the welfare state is fair because it brings about political and economic change through progressive tax.
The
Economy:
- Support for capitalism is nuanced as conservativism worships order, stability and continuity yet capitalism promotes risk, innovation and iconoclasm. This is because conservatives have a pessimistic view of capitalism and thus they fear radical change which may threaten dreadful outcomes. This means that for traditional conservatives such as Burke, supporting laissez-faire capitalism cannot occur as this is inconsistent with conservativism’s scepticism. However, this goes against the classical liberal belief held by Mill that the market is best when laissez-faire capitalism is allowed.
- Most conservatives support a moderated form of capitalism in which the free markets are tempered by state intervention (protectionism). This meant that protection of national producers would be met bringing emphasis on the one nation and a Keynesian approach could be taken. However, this goes against the socialist view held by Marx that capitalism was just a committee for the working class which should be replaced to reach “the end of history.”
- New Right thinkers such as Rand and Nozick held a more sympathetic view of the economy and capitalism. It was even referred to as Reganomics and Thatcherism which aimed to free the economy by rolling back the state. This meant that it promoted popular capitalism and destroyed socialism by bringing greater funding spending on the police and armed forces which is the prime order for society – to bring order and security. In this way the economy complemented the state. However, this went against the socialist thinker view of Gidden who believed that capitalism would remove poverty rather than bring order and security.
Traditional
Conservativism:
- Hierarchy: Natural in society
- Paternalism: Government should act like a father its children. Governing in best interests. Deference to leaders
- Order: Government provides clear rules, discipline and guidance to ensure that society is ordered, peaceful and stable
- Freedom: Some institutions place limits on freedom which reminds us that freedom is limited as good behaviour cannot be reciprocated e.g partly for breaking the law
- Social Attitudes: Moral values (nuclear family and marriage) that have provided stability and certainty. Freedom needs to be limited to protect this.
- ‘Little Platoons’: Community with a sense of security, order and stability. Centralisation would be damaging to society
- Change to conserve: Change and reform must be gradual and respect the wisdom of tradition
- Empiricism: Focus on what works (tradition and attitudes). Pragmatic and flexible in approaching political problems.
One Nation
Conservativism:
- Threat of Disorder: Emerged from the treat to the order of the state and society from socialism.
- One Nation: Emphasise and focus on the bonds of affection and trust that holds society. All classes and group are part of one nation. Damage to one part will damage the whole society. ‘The palace is not safe when the cottage is not happy.
- Change to Conserve: Disraeli accepted the rise of big cities but was concerned with the effects on society of the unchecked free market. Did not want reactionary politics but rather tackle the worst consequences of the market in order to conserve society because reform was an inoculation against revolution
- Paternalism: The wealthy have a responsibility to the less well-off. Involves state intervention in the economy and society to ensure social stability
New Right
Conservativism:
- Small state: Rand’s idea of ‘morality of rational self-interest. The state needs to be rolled back and limited but with national security at the heart. Opposes public spending as it unjust and creates a dependency culture.
- Free Market Capitalism: Market forces are the best method for the distribution and management of society’s resources. Cut taxes, privatise, deregulation and tight restrictions on government spending
- Society: Divided between neo-conservatives who wish to return to a society build around authority and neo-liberals who advocate a society built around individual choice. Neo-conservatives are anti-permissive: Rejection of permissiveness – making moral choices. This will protect national security. Neo-liberals want the state to intervene but only when needed. Relaxed about immigration as free market = free movement.
Thomas
Hobbes:
- Concept of human nature/laws of nature: His view of human nature is perhaps the most gloomy and cynical as he sees humans are endlessly restless in their pursuit of power to satisfy our desires. Humans are also equal in strength – “The weakest has the strength enough to kill the strongest”
- State of nature/natural law: In the state of nature, resources are scarce therefore life would be “nasty, brutish and short”. But the first natural law is to find peace and if not, man should war. Because humans are rational, the people should rise above the state of nature by agreeing to submit their individual desires to the absolute authority of the sovereignty.
- Power of the sovereign: Social contract establishes a sovereign with power to provide order, stability and security which would lead to the emergence of society. This was key as it meant that all power was held in one person (preferably a Monarchy). Contract is made just between the people, not the people and the sovereign. The people have only the rights the sovereign gives.
Edmund
Burke:
- Whig Principals: Opposition to absolute, arbitrary power.
- American & French Revolutions: Supported American Revolution because its aim was to protect the rights which existed before London attacked them. Opposed French Revolution as it aimed to destroy the collective wisdom of ages by throwing out existing institutions. French Revolution destroyed the contract.
- Human Nature: Sceptical view of human nature where humans cannot rely on rationalism but could rely on tradition and custom. Opposed social contract but said there was a contract between the dead, living and yet to be born where the living must nurture and protect tradition and pass it along generations.
- Society: Little platoons that would deal with political problems as they arise. Society is therefore organic and it develops naturally.
Michael
Oakeshott:
- Tradition/Criticism of rationalism: Rationalism remade society based on abstract ideas which will always fail as they are not based on concrete evidence. Therefore a pragmatic approach is needed (“familiar to the unknown”)
- Politics of faith vs scepticism: Rejected that people had faith in the government to improve the conditions of mankind. Scepticism saw the government’s attempt to perfect mankind are dangerous for human liberty and dignity. Government are human like us and can make mistakes but they can use their power to limit public order. Purpose of government was to “keep afloat in uncertain waters”
Ayn Rand:
- Opposition to collectivism: Supporting the view of atomism: Society is a collection of individuals pursuing their own lives. Rather than what socialists believe.
- Rational & ethical egoism individual rights: Basis of new morality. Objectivism. Selfishness does not mean doing as you please, rather it means humans must pursue their own happiness as the moral aim and prosper by treating others as individuals.
Robert
Nozick:
- Functions of the state: Minimal state is justified but only if it is limited to the protection of the person, property and contract. Mirrors the view that the state needs to be strong but limited to provide order for liberty. Allows for communities with their own morals and values to be formed. They enter a contract which allows the lives to be fully explored.
- Inequalities of wealth: Individual should be able to keep the fruits of their labour. Wilt Chamberlain argument that he can keep his money because it was his own labour and the contract was freely entered into. This meant that some people had more than others but this was ok because they had worked hard for their labour.