Liberalism - More Detailed Notes

Origins of Liberalism:

• Reformation: People no longer needed Priests, Pope and the Monarchy to tell them what to believe as the advancement of the printing press allowed people to think for themselves and form their own opinions hence Christianity could now undertake an individualist character with each man and woman undertaking private prayers and telling elements of religion they liked and removing those they disliked.
• Enlightenment: Belief in reason rather than faith (religion) and saw for the first time, people debating, questioning and scrutinising the status quo.
  • Individuals have free will and are the best judge of their character.
  • Locke who began to question why and how do people defer to the state (i.e those who govern them)
  • Rejection of Divine Right of Kings as humans have logic, calculation and deduction hence they should create a political system based on reason (mechanistic theory)

Human Nature:

1. Optimistic denying that mankind was flawed due to original sin (Enlightenment thinking). This means that humans can bring about progress and happiness. – linked to the ideas of Locke who rejected Divine Right of Kings and original sin. However, this goes against the ideas of Rawls who claims that mankind is still selfish, damaging those around us. Rawls believes in egotistical individualism.
2. Rational because we are optimistic. This means that humans are able to calculate answers to all problems. Debate, discussion and peaceful argument will be felt and a consensus will be reached (e.g Cabinet decisions are made through debate) and a rejection of “fate” and the “will of God.” Freidan would argue that the “problem with no name” could be solved through debate and stops women from being “miserable and empty.” However, this goes against the ideas of Wollstonecraft who claims that rationalism actually makes men and women different not equal.
3. Fixed claiming that individually are self-seeking (Egoistical individualism) but mankind still holds rationalism meaning that destructive selfishness and competition is not possible, leading to a peaceful and harmonious life. Underpinning the ideas of Mill who claims that human nature is not fixed, it is progressing to a higher level to achieve happiness. However, this goes against the ideas of Green who claimed that development individualism with positive freedom would lead to personal growth (hence some people work harder gain better results than others)

Society:

1. Natural as the state of nature would see “natural laws and rights” which have come before the state (i.e they have always been here) as the ideas of John Locke suggest. This means that life is not “nasty, brutish and short” as Hobbes claims but instead it is pleasant and peaceful. However, this goes against the socialist view that society is based upon the class you’re in.
2. Individual centric as Mill argued that each individual has a unique personality and will be rational and egotistic which drives their desire to fulfil their potential. This means that for liberals, the “individual is sovereign” seeking freedom for themselves, any society which denies individualism is dysfunctional (i.e America before the revolution). However, this goes against the ideas of socialists such as Marx and Engels who believed that society should be based on “each according to his ability, to each according to his needs.”
3. Property centric as Locke suggested because it is the expression of the individual as it the place in which “man has mixed his labour” in society. This means that, individuals can continue to develop their potential using equality of opportunity to nurture in society e.g by working and contributing to society through taxes and trickle-down, hence Liberal Democrats want employment to increase and liberal-conservatives such as Thatcher wanted employment to increase. However, this goes against the ideas of Marx who believed that property was a construct of capitalism and this should be replaced with social housing in modern society with communism.

The Economy:

1. Support capitalism. Liberals will defend a market based economy (an economy based on supply and demand) whilst rejecting fundamentalist socialists of rejecting capitalism. This is because property is a natural right as Locke said. This means that liberals support an economy that puts private property at the heart of economic arrangement as it is individualist in nature involving individual traders who are cooperating and competing. However, this goes against the socialist view of economy that Marx holds where communism will abolish private property.
2. Linked with the positive view of human nature. The ideas of Adam Smith where the obstacles to free-trade would be removed and the “invisible hand” would guide traders towards success bringing “trickle-down”. This is significant as it reflects the optimistic tone of liberalism which has been seen in human nature and essentially establishes the basis of most liberal economies in the modern world. However, a thinker such as Gidden would argue that the market should be based off privatisation and low taxes to create equality of opportunity.
3. Modern liberals believe that capitalism creates obstacles both socially and economically causing individuals not to reach their full potential as human nature describes. This leads to modern liberals such as Green to endorse Keynesian to bring economic prosperity through full employment and enhanced living standards through a welfare state as the free market is unable to achieve this. This is why the post-war consensus was advocated for so long until a neo-liberal like Thatcher reversed it.

The State:

1. Neutral umpire as Locke thought the state of nature would see individual clashes. But without a state, clashes, particularly those involving property, would not be solved rationally. This would lead to a society in which everybody in egoistical. Although this state is tolerable it is not what all liberals want, although this is the type of state classic liberals advocated (a night-watchman state). However, this goes against the Conservative view of the state which is to provide order, security and law through extra policing for example.
2. Belief in government by consent. Thinkers such as Locke maintained that the “government should always be the servant not master of the people.” This meant that liberals believed in social contract theory and should accept the laws but in return for the promotion of natural rights, enforced by the UN, equality of opportunity and a meritocracy as these all put the individual first. However, socialists think that the purpose of the state is to promote equality
3. Structure of the state should have constitutional government with formal equality as they have in the USA. This means that a government is kept rational i.e through the restrictions of the USA Bill of Rights and ideas such as the Rule of Law is maintained. However, this goes against traditional conservatives who argue that the natural ruling elite should govern in the interests of the governed.

Classical Liberalism:

• Radical Politically: Government by consent promoted the idea that the government should represent the will of the people rather than be master of the people.
• Radical in terms of gender: Optimistic view is extended, by Mary Wollstonecraft, to include women as well.
• Egotistic Individualism: Self-seeking humans looking to advance their own interests independently.
• Negative Freedom: Absence of restraint on the individual – people acting the way they want e.g free-speech. “A starving man is not free” – Beveridge. Individuals assume they are free until someone or something stops them i.e the courts.
• Night-Watchman State: According to Locke, the state must only act to protect “the peace, safety and public good of the people”. Right to impose it’s will on people through the harm principal (government can only interfere if someone else is being harmed). Checks and balances are vital
• Free-Market Capitalism/Laissez-Faire: Market economy based on property can deliver prosperity for the individual and society provided that free trade and competition exists. No tax or subsides but the state should ensure property is protected. Ideas of Adam Smith and the market force which would “guide the invisible hand” to enrich society and wealth which would “trickle down” e.g end of tariffs in the EU.

Modern Liberalism:

• Emerged as a result of poverty which appeared to restrict the individual’s ability to grow and flourish.
• Positive Freedom: TH Green argued that people were beyond the control of socio-economics as this restricted individuals. However, in modern society there was huge levels of inequalities and poverty therefore, freedom needed to be redesigned. Freedom was no longer absence of restraint but positive freedom which would enable people to reach their individuality. The state should not restraint freedom but promote freedom by protecting people from social injustice e.g poor health, unemployment and a lack of education.
• Enabling State: John Rawls thought that the state should become larger in order to extend the individual through more laws, state spending and taxes. This became known as a collectivism. Advancement of the welfare state could now be justified on the grounds it provided equality of opportunity. This allowed people to develop. Also used Keynesianism to bring full employment and economic growth so each individual could pursue their own version of the good life. Example: Post-war consensus in the UK: 1945-1979 and the Beveridge Report. However, this would mean people would have to pay some tax but this went with the principal of government by consent. It was not socialism because instead of improving society, it looked to advance the individual.
• Social Liberalism: Society has discriminated against minorities. This meant they felt greater toleration and equality of opportunity. This was consistent with positive freedom and enabling state. This means that there needs to be legislation in order to “level the playing field”. Modern examples are positive discrimination and affirmative action.
• Liberal Democracy: Because modern liberals want to extend the state, it has been keen to reform it through constitutional reform. Demands for a codified constitution, electoral reform and devolution. Also a want for universal suffrage and champion lowering the voting age to 16. Showed little enthusiasm for direct democracy (referendums) as this can cause a tyranny of the majority.

Neo-Liberalism:

• Seen as conservativism because it is reactionary and was advocated by Thatcher and Reagan through returning liberalism to its roots.
  • Aims to roll back the state (privatisation) with Keynesianism. Return to minimal state and free market capitalism.
• Free Market Capitalism: Would lead to a night-watchman state (e.g Thatcher giving more money to policing – stop and search)
• Negative Freedom: Central to freedom and individualism. Hayek argued that without private ownership of the press, there could be no freedom of the press.
• Welfare State: It is collectivism which is seen as socialism. Also creates a dependency culture leading to people relying on the state rather than helping themselves and being “individual.” This can be stopped through free markets and trade and globalisation to drive economic and social progress.

John Locke:

• Monarchy does not have a natural right to rule thus establishing a minimal state.
• Natural Rights: Humans are naturally free, independent and equal. State of nature would see clashes but as humans are rational, this could be solved through social contract. When the contract is broken by not protecting rights, the people revoke their consent e.g American Revolution. Constitutional state with checks and balances. The state is a neutral umpire.
• Liberty & Individualism: State of nature would be free but clashes would limit individualism thus entering the social contract.
• Fiduciary Power: The clear separation of powers will prevent an abuse of power but the legislature should be the supreme power but this is fiduciary (acting on behalf of others)

Mary Wollstonecraft:

• Equality & Rights: Women had no formal equality making them slaves in a political and civil sense. Therefore women should have formal equality and individualism to ensure that there is true government by consent
• Revolution Controversy: Burke had rejected the American Revolution but Wollstonecraft supported it and argued for Republicanism – a political system without a monarch.
• Criticisms of Aristocracy & Republicanism: Formal equality must be given to all individuals and not just men.

John Stuart Mill:

• Criticism of hedonism: The idea that happiness is the ultimate good. Distinguished between the lower pleasures such as eating and drinking and replace them with the higher pleasures of life.
• Freedom & Integrity: Developed the idea of negative freedom as the absence of restraint where the government should only intervene if the harm principal was being exploited.
• The Individual: Liberty is more than a natural right. It is the key to ongoing development and learning. Liberty drives progress and allows people to full their individuality “as diversity of character and culture” enables reasoned debate. The role of the state is only to constantly improve their mind to increase their higher pleasures. Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied”.
• Self-regarding & other regarding actions: To clarify tolerance, Mill divided human action into “self-regarding” and “other-regarding”. Self-regarding involved robust expression or religious worship whilst other-regarding involves violent behaviour which clearly harmed the freedom of others and should not be tolerated by a liberal state. This meant that new ideas would emerge whilst bad ideas would open up through debate and discussion.

John Rawls:

• Concept of Justice: Developed the idea of ‘original position’ where people construct the type of society they would like to live in. People would be under the veil of ignorance. Rational individuals would choose a more equal society. Thus enabling state by avoiding poverty which is a powerful position.
• Principals of Justice: Distributive justice as inequalities of wealth are legitimate as they provide incentive for people to work but only as long as they raise income and wealth for the poorest.

Thomas Hill Green: iHHs

• Role of the state: The state should remove hereditary privilege thus freeing the poor from the 5 social evils Beveridge said.
• Negative and positive freedom: Positive freedom had emerged as the individual could rise above the narrow concerns of the self-interest to the contribute to the best of society. Can be done by removing hereditary privilege by freeing the poor.

Betty Friedan:

• Equal Rights: Women need to be set free by getting a good education and a career. It is possible for marriage, education and career for an individual to thrive if formal equality is granted – a classical liberal approach.
• Civil Rights & Feminist Movement: Illiberal attitudes in society rather than human nature caused women to underachieve. This has been spread through “cultural channels” like school, media and religion. This has made women think that their life has been determined by human nature rather than rationality.