Feminism - Radical, Cultural & Socialist Feminists

Radical Feminism:

• They propose the destruction of patriarchal society and its transformation into a completely new form
• Liberal feminists are reformists: A term often used to describe moderate liberal feminists who wish to reform society rather than transform it. Radical feminists use the term pejoratively of liberals.
  Radical feminists stress the importance of female consciousness in both their critique of patriarchy and their proposals for a new social order
• Known as difference feminists: See women as different but equal or even superior to men. The difference should be accepted and even celebrated. Equality feminists seek to eliminate cultural differences between the sexes in the pursuit of quality.

Radical Perspectives On Patriarchy:

• Kate Millett looked first to the family to aid understanding of patriarchy. In marriage, she argued women are exploited both sexually and economically. This is a common theme among radical feminists.
• She stated in her book that men oppress women in all friends, in-home, economy and in life in general. She stated it was because of the exercise of power.
• Germaine Greer stated that men hated women and women are taught to hate themselves to an inferior position.
• Firestone saw the struggle as a dialectic class struggle and the struggle relates to the traditional bondage of always being confined to the home.
• Andrea Dworkin was the most modern radical feminist against the sexual oppression of women. She stated that pornography was a man’s view of women as sex objects – she stated that to change this, women would have to become lesbians.
• She thought that patriarchy destroys any ideas of potential liberation

Radical Responses To Patriarchy:

• The abolition of the nuclear family and its replacement by communal forms of child-rearing and living in general. This will naturally remove the male domination of the family.
• Sexual liberation is critical for many radicals. Women can be free from male-female relationships.
• Elimination of biological roles is perhaps the most radical solution of all. Firestone began the idea of androgyny, the removal of sex differences – she saw a world where women will no longer need men to reproduce

Cultural Feminism:

• A type of feminism that accepts that women are born with diverse cultural characterises to men as well as biological differences. These characteristics are both useful to society and in some cases, superior to the male characters.
• They think that differences should be embraced rather than opposed.
• Explores the essence of women and finds that it is more caring and nurturing than the essence of men which tends to be more aggressive.
• Eco-feminists have adopted this view as the female essence is more peaceful and just.
• Cultural feminists accept that women are more likely to take up domestic roles but value them highly or even more highly than some roles played by men.

Socialist Feminists:

• Marxist feminists look to the ideas of Friedrich Engle’s who pointed out that women were becoming a key element in the future of capitalism.
• Women have always been oppressed in terms of property, therefore, they have oppressed by property owners
• Their lack of property forced them into paid employment
• Modern Marxist feminists take a similar view but criticise Engle’s for over-stressing the importance of property as women are increasingly owning property. But they remain an exploited part of the workforce
• Less extreme socialists have rejected the idea that class is the only idea that has any meaning, they argue that class and patriarchy are sources of oppression. They tend to concentrate on the working-class women whilst liberals focus on equal chances and pay for women.
• Socialist feminists argue that only the extreme modification of capitalism will liberate women from their inferior economic position e.g. the state ownership of industry will eliminate the need for women to compete against men for employment.
• Sheila Rowbotham is described as a socialist rather than Marxist and for her female oppression has economic roots but it also stems from the traditional nature of the nuclear family and the dominance of male sexuality.
• Equality for women is a precondition for sexual revolution but it is not enough to raise the consciousness of women or to ensure their ability to define their own future.
• Socialists seek the liberation of women from their economic dependence upon men.
• Power must be distributed more evenly in society so that even working-class women would benefit and so there is a change in culture

Are Women Inevitably Oppressed And Discriminated Against Under Capitalism:
Yes:	No:
If men dominate positions of economic power, they will discriminate against women	Women are making progress in achieving senior positions in life.
The predominance of women playing domestic roles means that men are bound to dominate economic life	No longer inevitable that women must concentrate on domestic roles – women can play a full part in the economic life outside the home
Women’s innate lack of aggressiveness and competitiveness makes them ill-suited to the world of capitalism	No such thing as the ‘innate non-aggressive’ nature of women. If women are more caring, it would make a more humane form of capitalism.

Feminism - Liberal Feminism

Liberal Feminists:

• First wave feminism was largely liberal in its nature.
• Liberty: They wanted women to be free to choose the nature of their own lives.
• Equal opportunity with men in education, the same civil rights, enjoy private rights, same democratic rights.
• Influences included Mary Wollstonecraft and the suffrage movement.
• When these objectives were noticed, it was evident that it was far from enough and women remained an inferior gender suffering from discrimination.
• By the 1960s, it became evident that women were still suffering and Friedan said the problem was cultural in nature and it became known as the “problem with no name” implying that it was largely undiscovered. She said that women did not recognise the nature of their oppression. Men themselves are the victims of patriarchy because they have been socially conditioned to think of themselves as superior.
• Otherness: In feminist theory, otherness refers to the position of women in patriarchal society, treated as separate to society, an inferior minority, subordinate to men
• After the true nature of patriarchy was revealed by writers, women took up the cause by themselves. Liberals believe that women should be able to choose what role they take, it could be traditional domestic.
• 3 ways to combat patriarchy: End discrimination described as gender equality. Cultural attitudes had to be demeaned as a women’s sense of inferiority had to combatted achieved through education. They want political and legal equality.

Does Liberal Feminism Fail To Understand The True Nature Of The Patriarchy:
Yes:	No:
They do not understand the nature of the working class or ethnic minorities	They claim that the cultural nature such as sexism plays a bigger role
In a capitalist society, they do not understand how it oppresses them	By achieving legal equality, the patriarchy will decline as men will no longer hold dominant positions in society
They underestimate the “personal is political” and how relationships are power in nature	Women now have more knowledge and are slowly combating the patriarchy.

Feminism - The State, Society & The Economy

The State:

• Do not have a distinctive theory of the state, socialist feminists see the state as the agent of capitalism and since capitalism naturally exploits women, the state is the ultimate architect of such exploitation.
• The main characteristic of the modern state that concerns feminists relates to patriarchy. Oppression and exploitation of women in a male-dominated society – the state allows this exploitation.
• Liberals will argue that the state is reluctant to address the inferior position of women as themselves are dominated by men.
• Radical feminists will view such developments as welcome but also superficial. Such reforms do not address the more fundamental problem of the systemic nature of discrimination. Patriarchy is more pervasive than their forms suggest. These problems have been deeply rooted and the state is powerless to combat them.

Society:

Patriarchy:

• Many feminists see society as a deeply patriarchal in nature.
• For socialist feminists, they see capitalism as an area where workers have been exploited whilst radical feminists think the patriarchy is damaging women rather than workers.
• It can be combated in one of two ways: A full-scale attack on cultural values in society involving violent resistance to male dominance. Or create a female counter-cultural separate altogether from the patriarchal society.
• Liberals think reform is the solution.

Equality & Difference Feminism:

• Equality feminists have limited aspirations. They seek equality for women in all spheres. They are described as liberals.
• Difference Feminism is more complex. They see men and women as having differences and they should be recognised in society. They do not believe that one gender is superior to the other, they believe that the differences should be embraced. They believe some characteristics are better.
• Equality feminists believe that differences automatically lead to inequality and it must benefit men only.

Intersectionality:

• This contemporary, post-modern idea among feminists suggest that women have multiple identities as well as their female sex and gender. Thus, the problems women face is intersectional, involving a combination of their female identity and other identities such as ethnicity, sexual orientation, social class, and religion.
• Many critics suggest that feminism tended to be a largely white, middle class, one size fits all movement. Whilst pointing out that women from a variety of social and cultural backgrounds face very different problems. E.g. the oppression faced by black women vs white women.
• Kimberlee Crenshaw pointed out that in modern society we all have multiple identities and gender is not the only identity we have. Traditional feminism suggests that gender is everything but intersectionality says not.
• Bell Hooks stresses race as key identity and insists that the battle against sexism. She thinks that there needs to be a black feminist movement etc.

The Economy:

• All feminists are agreed that women are discriminated against in the economic world. E.g. low paid low skills.
• Socialists feminists go further saying that there is a reserve army of labour: Developed by Friedrich Engels, suggesting that in an industrial capitalist system, women form such a group to increase output in the short term and to keep wages low but the group can be dispensed with when not required.
• Similar in the way men were oppressed when capitalism first came about, women are oppressed in a post-industrial society.

Feminism - Origins & Human Nature

The Origins Of Feminism:

• Increasingly across the world, you will find a growing female consciousness and opposition to a male-dominated world.
• Some say that the African Tribes with strong women were the backbone of feminism in Ancient Greece
• Others say that the French Revolution is the starting point of feminism as we saw early ideas that women would want to share equal rights with men.
• The first well-known and rigorous work on women’s rights was written by an English liberal – Mary Wollstonecraft.
• She does not go as far as mentioning equal rights but she advocated equality for women and, good education and a status as a good member of society.
• She thought to be a good wife and mother was good enough but accepted that women had to be independent of their husbands
• Wollstonecraft was not a feminist in the modern age society but she was a pioneer for it
• These early signs were not substantial, feminism was regarded as a strong political and social movement in the last 19^th century such as when John Stuart Mills and his wife, Harriet Taylor campaigned for the passage of the Married Women’s Property Act which allowed women to keep property after they were married.
• Votes for women was the campaign that set feminism on the path it is on today.
• In 1890 the National American Women Suffrage was founded which was later followed by the National Women’s Party and by 1920 the constitutional amendment was passed which guaranteed equal voting rights for women.
• In the UK, the Women Social and Political Union (WSPU) was founded in 1903 and run by the Pankhurst family.
• When Emmeline led the movement to get women after the age of 30 the vote (they could also stand in Parliament) it was seen to be the first wave of feminism in the UK.
• Many thought that after the vote was granted, many more rights would be given to women but nothing of the sort happened until the 1960s when second-wave feminism began.
• The second wave was part of a broader cultural movement which was a general critique of post-industrial society which wanted to identify various social groups such as the black population, gay community, the poor and of course women. Feminism had well and truly arrived!

The Core Ideas Of Feminism:

Human Nature:

Sex:

• The feminism movement developed the distinction between the two.
• Sex: Refers to the biological differences between men and women. They are seen as inevitable natural and unalterable.
• The most significant difference is that women give birth and play a decisive role in the life of a new-born whilst men do not. It could also refer to the physical strength that women have compared to men
• For most feminists, sex differences are irrelevant to the way in which women are treated in society whilst other feminists see sex or biological differences as important and some go as far to say they are the explanation of the inferior status of women. This is known as essentialism.
• Essentialism: This is a contested idea within feminism. The term refers to the fundamental natures of the biological differences between men and women. Some feminists say such differences are essential to an understanding of the status of women others claim it should be irrelevant.
• Radical feminists agree that biology may have determined the inferior status of women but they do not think the argument is relevant today.

Gender:

• Gender refers to the cultural differences between the sexes, leading to a feeling of superiority of men and inferiority of women and the assessments of inferior roles in society to women. Feminists view gender differences as the creation of patriarchal society and see them as not natural. Sex and gender stereotypes, such as typical female secretaries or male chief executives are the results of such distinctions.
• There used to a dominant attitude in society that sex and gender were linked – that the distinct roles played by women were biologically determined. Women, for example, should be unable to undertake demanding jobs because of their need to give birth and care for young children. Similarly, women would naturally have a more caring and humane attitude to life because of their childrearing role and would be less suited to the competitive world of business.
• There was a male-dominated cultural perspective that suggested that women were inferior to men because of the roles they play in motherhood and homemaking were seen to be less important than earning outside the home.
• Lack of education and occupational opportunities open to women reinforced the general cultural belief that men were superior.
• Betty Friedan, described as the founder of second-wave feminism, said that gender differences were so deep-rooted that women themselves tended to share them with men as she wrote “Each suburban wife struggled with it alone. As she made the beds, shopped for groceries, matched slipcover material, ate peanut butter sandwiches with her children, chauffeured Cub Scouts, and Brownies, lay beside her husband at night – she was afraid to ask even of herself the silent question – “is this all?”
• Liberal feminists accept the significance of sex differences but regard gender differences and the superiority of men as an artificial construct created by male-dominated societies (patriarchal). There is, they say, no reason biological differences between the sexes should be converted into gender differences. The idea is reinforced by education and the media. They focus on the need to reform. They think change can come.
• Radical feminists such as Juliet Mitchell see gender differences as all-pervading and more deep-rooted than the liberal feminists believe. They believe that male genders exist in all aspects of all life. It must be destroyed. Shulasmith was a very radical feminist who thought the very sex differences have led to the oppression of women. She wanted androgyny, a state where men and women would co-exist without sexual relations. People should be free to choose their sexual identity and may choose to have no sexual identity at all.
• Socialist feminists, see the oppression or inferior status of women as being bound up with the whole operation of capitalism. They have become an oppressed class. They think they have become a cheap source of labour. At home, they are unpaid and outside they are paid for low-skilled jobs. They dub it as “second-class labour”

The Personal Is Political:

• An important idea which helps us to distinguish between liberal and radical feminists.
• Liberal feminists advocate the separation of the private sphere from the public sphere.
• Private Sphere: Refers to those aspects of life which are the concern of the individual and her close family and friends only. For a liberal, the private sphere should not concern of the state or the rest of society unless harm is being done to the individual within the private sphere e.g. domestic violence.
• Public Sphere: Refers to those aspects of social, political, and economic life that concern the whole community and so are not confined to the home and the private lives of women.
• If thoughts and actions do not harm others, say liberals, there is no justification for interference.
• We live in a public sphere because our actions do affect others because they concern the government and the laws they make e.g. equality laws, anti-discrimination laws, equal pay laws, domestic violence laws.

Conservatism - More Detailed Notes

Origins of Conservativism:

• A reaction to the politics of Enlightenment, a notion that there was an ideal society which should be reached.
• Revolutionary change (e.g French Revolution) had been shocking and proved that it was possible to accept reform whilst rejecting revolution.
• The French Revolution paved the way for a new ideology, one that would respect the case for change whilst warning of its dangers.
• Promotes the idea of changing to conserve: Changing traditional institutions (e.g the Lords) should be opposed. Change should be incremental on what works in order to conserve what is valuable.

Human Nature:

1. Pessimistic as being described as the “politics of imperfection” where humans are fragile and fallible. This meant that conservatives (unlike socialists) deny that human nature is malleable but there is no chance of a utopian society. This is held by thinkers such as Burke who said life was “nasty, brutish and short” therefore utopia cannot exist. This is a direct criticism of socialism which views human nature as malleable where humans can be shaped by social circumstances and thus socialism.
2. Other traditional conservatives such as Burke hold the view that human nature is sceptical and agree that human nature is neither flawless nor able to be perfected. This meant that humans would naturally gain comfort and support from ‘little platoons’ but this could only happen if humans were informed by custom and tradition. This is best seen in the UK cabinet which deals with problems as they arise through mainly tradition.
3. New right thinkers such as Rand and Nozick took a more conservative-liberal view by claiming humans were positive seeing humans as rational who are dignified. This is significant as it underpinned the politics of faith vs the politics of scepticism focusing above human potential. However, this went against the traditional conservative view but was seen to be an updated version of ‘little platoons’ but saw a movement for changing to conserve which is a core conservative idea as humans take peace and stability in human affairs.

Society:

1. Traditional conservatives believe in paternalism and noblesse oblige through natural society. With natural hierarchy as conservatives believe “the wiser and stronger” establish a hierarchy so that even ‘little platoons’ have a top-down structure. Indeed this was the view held by Theresa May earlier during her tenure ship. This means that society is traditional as this forms the common basis of society. Any risk to this would be damaging to society. However, by far this goes against the socialist view of society where people are shaped and are products of the society they are born into leading to a “false conscienceless.”
2. Shared values and morals are held by religion with its belief in original sin and Judaeo-Christian morality. This meant that conservatives held a strong view on marriage, nuclear family and accountable actions and punishments such as policing. A Conservative such as David Cameron stretched this elastic by legalising same-sex marriage on account that it was still marriage under Judaeo-Christian morality. However, this goes against the view liberals hold where the individual was sovereign.
3. New right thinkers such as Rand and Nozick believe in an atomist society where they challenged the view of organic society. Individuals would now pursue their own ends thus bringing human progress. This would mean that society had no right to impose itself on the person through tradition and custom such as religion. The individual would now be free to make their own rational choices. Whilst this was incline with the liberal view, it goes against socialist thinkers such as Giddens who believes that the importance of community would be felt.

The State:

1. Promotes order and security. Unlike socialism which sees the state as progressive serving towards an end goal, conservatives sees the state as a form of disciplinary function. This was the view held by Hobbes and could be implemented through the social contract which allows society to thrive. Burke, said the contract was between the “living, dead and yet to be born” and the state would emerge gradually. This meant that individual rights was entirely dependent on law and order which only the state can provide.
2. Emphasise a state based on nationhood. For all conservative thinkers, the nation is now a mega-community, one that enfolded all classes and therefore provided a natural basis for the state. This means that the state defines the nation hence the weighted importance on the Constitutions and monarchy (all of which are traditional). This also explains why British conservatives have limited appetite for the European Union and voted for the UK’s departure. However, this goes against the liberal view that the individual is sovereign.
3. New Right conservatives reject the welfare state on account that it creates a dependency culture giving those who have contributed nothing towards society a boost up. This means that the state should be small, existing for national security. However, this goes against the socialist view of the state which proses that the welfare state is fair because it brings about political and economic change through progressive tax.

The Economy:

1. Support for capitalism is nuanced as conservativism worships order, stability and continuity yet capitalism promotes risk, innovation and iconoclasm. This is because conservatives have a pessimistic view of capitalism and thus they fear radical change which may threaten dreadful outcomes. This means that for traditional conservatives such as Burke, supporting laissez-faire capitalism cannot occur as this is inconsistent with conservativism’s scepticism. However, this goes against the classical liberal belief held by Mill that the market is best when laissez-faire capitalism is allowed.
2. Most conservatives support a moderated form of capitalism in which the free markets are tempered by state intervention (protectionism). This meant that protection of national producers would be met bringing emphasis on the one nation and a Keynesian approach could be taken. However, this goes against the socialist view held by Marx that capitalism was just a committee for the working class which should be replaced to reach “the end of history.”
3. New Right thinkers such as Rand and Nozick held a more sympathetic view of the economy and capitalism. It was even referred to as Reganomics and Thatcherism which aimed to free the economy by rolling back the state. This meant that it promoted popular capitalism and destroyed socialism by bringing greater funding spending on the police and armed forces which is the prime order for society – to bring order and security. In this way the economy complemented the state. However, this went against the socialist thinker view of Gidden who believed that capitalism would remove poverty rather than bring order and security.

Traditional Conservativism:

• Hierarchy: Natural in society
• Paternalism: Government should act like a father its children. Governing in best interests. Deference to leaders
• Order: Government provides clear rules, discipline and guidance to ensure that society is ordered, peaceful and stable
• Freedom: Some institutions place limits on freedom which reminds us that freedom is limited as good behaviour cannot be reciprocated e.g partly for breaking the law
• Social Attitudes: Moral values (nuclear family and marriage) that have provided stability and certainty. Freedom needs to be limited to protect this.
• ‘Little Platoons’: Community with a sense of security, order and stability. Centralisation would be damaging to society
• Change to conserve: Change and reform must be gradual and respect the wisdom of tradition
• Empiricism: Focus on what works (tradition and attitudes). Pragmatic and flexible in approaching political problems.

One Nation Conservativism:

• Threat of Disorder: Emerged from the treat to the order of the state and society from socialism.
• One Nation: Emphasise and focus on the bonds of affection and trust that holds society. All classes and group are part of one nation. Damage to one part will damage the whole society. ‘The palace is not safe when the cottage is not happy.
• Change to Conserve: Disraeli accepted the rise of big cities but was concerned with the effects on society of the unchecked free market. Did not want reactionary politics but rather tackle the worst consequences of the market in order to conserve society because reform was an inoculation against revolution
• Paternalism: The wealthy have a responsibility to the less well-off. Involves state intervention in the economy and society to ensure social stability

New Right Conservativism:

• Small state: Rand’s idea of ‘morality of rational self-interest. The state needs to be rolled back and limited but with national security at the heart. Opposes public spending as it unjust and creates a dependency culture.
• Free Market Capitalism: Market forces are the best method for the distribution and management of society’s resources. Cut taxes, privatise, deregulation and tight restrictions on government spending
• Society: Divided between neo-conservatives who wish to return to a society build around authority and neo-liberals who advocate a society built around individual choice. Neo-conservatives are anti-permissive: Rejection of permissiveness – making moral choices. This will protect national security. Neo-liberals want the state to intervene but only when needed. Relaxed about immigration as free market = free movement.

Thomas Hobbes:

• Concept of human nature/laws of nature: His view of human nature is perhaps the most gloomy and cynical as he sees humans are endlessly restless in their pursuit of power to satisfy our desires. Humans are also equal in strength – “The weakest has the strength enough to kill the strongest”
• State of nature/natural law: In the state of nature, resources are scarce therefore life would be “nasty, brutish and short”. But the first natural law is to find peace and if not, man should war. Because humans are rational, the people should rise above the state of nature by agreeing to submit their individual desires to the absolute authority of the sovereignty.
• Power of the sovereign: Social contract establishes a sovereign with power to provide order, stability and security which would lead to the emergence of society. This was key as it meant that all power was held in one person (preferably a Monarchy). Contract is made just between the people, not the people and the sovereign. The people have only the rights the sovereign gives.

Edmund Burke:

• Whig Principals: Opposition to absolute, arbitrary power.
• American & French Revolutions: Supported American Revolution because its aim was to protect the rights which existed before London attacked them. Opposed French Revolution as it aimed to destroy the collective wisdom of ages by throwing out existing institutions. French Revolution destroyed the contract.
• Human Nature: Sceptical view of human nature where humans cannot rely on rationalism but could rely on tradition and custom. Opposed social contract but said there was a contract between the dead, living and yet to be born where the living must nurture and protect tradition and pass it along generations.
• Society: Little platoons that would deal with political problems as they arise. Society is therefore organic and it develops naturally.

Michael Oakeshott:

• Tradition/Criticism of rationalism: Rationalism remade society based on abstract ideas which will always fail as they are not based on concrete evidence. Therefore a pragmatic approach is needed (“familiar to the unknown”)
• Politics of faith vs scepticism: Rejected that people had faith in the government to improve the conditions of mankind. Scepticism saw the government’s attempt to perfect mankind are dangerous for human liberty and dignity. Government are human like us and can make mistakes but they can use their power to limit public order. Purpose of government was to “keep afloat in uncertain waters”

Ayn Rand:

• Opposition to collectivism: Supporting the view of atomism: Society is a collection of individuals pursuing their own lives. Rather than what socialists believe.
• Rational & ethical egoism individual rights: Basis of new morality. Objectivism. Selfishness does not mean doing as you please, rather it means humans must pursue their own happiness as the moral aim and prosper by treating others as individuals.

Robert Nozick:

• Functions of the state: Minimal state is justified but only if it is limited to the protection of the person, property and contract. Mirrors the view that the state needs to be strong but limited to provide order for liberty. Allows for communities with their own morals and values to be formed. They enter a contract which allows the lives to be fully explored.
• Inequalities of wealth: Individual should be able to keep the fruits of their labour. Wilt Chamberlain argument that he can keep his money because it was his own labour and the contract was freely entered into. This meant that some people had more than others but this was ok because they had worked hard for their labour.

Conservatism - Core Basic Notes

Origins:

• Enlightenment, French & American Revolution. All three went too far and was too radical and so it would be better to conserve rather than change.

Main beliefs:

• If conservatism is actually an ideology
• Government is paramount to conservative thought – it is traditional and provides order. Limited in size but preserve the one nation.
• Free market is central to a thriving economy that can provide wealth for all.
• Freedom and choice are important but the state is needed to provide order and stability for this freedom and choice to exist.

Traditional Conservatives:

• Belief in hierarchy and paternalism where the government provides clear order and rules on how to act. This is upheld through social attitudes such as marriage that provide stability and certainty.
• Society is a series of little platoons that deal with political problems as they arise
• Belief in change to conserve
• Focus on empiricism – focus on what is rather than what can be.

New Right:

• Belief in small state which needs to be rolled back with limited public spending on welfare
• Free market is best for management of resources with lots of privatisation and cuts in tax to return to capitalism.
• Society divided between neo-conservatives who believe in anti-permissiveness (rejection of permissiveness which is a liberal belief that people should make their own moral choices. The state can provide order)
  • Neo-liberals who believe that individual choices are more important to bring a stripped state

Conservatism - Summary, Tensions & Today

	Human Nature:	The State:	Society:	The Economy
Thomas Hobbes:	Cynical individuals are selfish, driven by restlessness and ruthlessness desire for supremacy and security	The state should arise contractually from individuals who seek order and security. To serve its purpose the state must be autocratic and awesome.	There can be no society until the creation of the state that brings order and authority to human affairs. Life is ‘nasty, brutish and short.’	Constructive and enduring economic activity is impossible without a state guaranteeing order and security.
Edmund Burke:	Sceptical, ‘the crooked timber of humanity’ is marked by a gap between aspiration and achievement. May conceive perfection but unable to achieve it.	Should arise organically and should be aristocratic, driving by the hereditary elite reared to rule in the interest of all	Organic and multi-facetted compromising a host of small communities – ‘little platoons’	Trade should involve organic free markets and laissez-faire capitalism.
Michael Oakeshott:	Modest. Humanity is at its best when free from grand designs and when focused on the routines of the everyday elite	Should be guided by traditions and practical concerns pragmatism not dogmatism. Should be its watchword/	Localised commentaries are essential to humanities survival especially when guided by short term interests rather than abstract ideas	Free markets are volatile and unpredictable and may require pragmatic moderation by the state.
Ayn Rand:	Objectivistic, we are and ought to be guided by rational self-interest and the pursuit of self-fulfilment.	State should confine itself to law, order and national security. Postrave liberty through state intervention should be resisted	Atomistic. Any attempt to restrict individuals in the name of society should be changed	Free market capitalism is an expression of objectivism. Individualistic and should not be hindered by the state.
Robert Nozick:	Egotistical individuals are driven by a quest for self-ownership allowing them to realise their full potential.	Miniarchist state should merely outsource, renew and reallocate contracts to private companies providing public services	Geared to the individual’s self-fulfilment. Leads to small communities reflecting them members diverse tastes and philosophies.	Miniarchist state should detach itself from a privatised and deregulated economy merely arbitrating disputes between private economic organisation.

Tensions:

• Human Nature: Traditional conservatives e.g. Burke take a sceptical view of human nature drawing the gap between aspiration and achievement whilst warning against the grand, utopian schemes of progressive politics. The French and American revolutions have misread human potential. The New Right take a more optimistic approach by what humans may achieve. Pro-capitalist economy environment where individuals’ energies are unleashed.
• Society: Traditional conservatives see society as little platoons overseen by a hierarchical structure in which the elite govern over the majority where society should emerge organically. New Right are ambivalent about society and its existence drawing upon the libertarian belief that society is a collection of atomised individuals seeking self-determination. New Right want a society that is defined by those who have achieved rather than inherited power and status. A society that is meritocratic rather than aristocratic.
• The State: Traditional conservatives defend a state in which political power is wielded by those who are born to rule. The state should have a natural ruling class reared to the principals of duty and sacrifice. New Right wish to ‘roll back the frontiers of the state’ so they can advance freedom and reverse the dependency culture. They fear the ruling classes have too much power and are reluctant to admit the need for radical change.
• The Economy: Traditional conservatives are keen to defend an economy based on private ownership but sceptical about free market capitalism as it may threaten the one nation and fuel support for socialism. A more cosmopolitan society could erode national identity and national culture. More state intervention through Keynesian economic, higher tax and high public spending on state welfare. New Right advocate free market economies where state functions are privatised and regulate, and levels of tax are reduced.

Conservatism Today:

• As the economy becomes volatile, the appeal for more traditional conservative stance is higher than ever.
• An illustration of this has been seen in the shift of focus into the states responsibilities. Growth of terrorism and problems with mass migration has prompted a change to order, safety and security where the state is more authoritative. Hobbes may be proud of this.
• There isn’t a huge renewed interest in socialism and their reluctance for state intervention may be sparking the end for hard-socialism and more neo-liberal matters.
• David Cameron tried to adapt little platoons into big society where there a big society but a small state.
• Indeed the most conservative movement in the UK has been the move out of Europe as it yearns for a greater sense of national identity and form a government that is national, not continental. There may even be a similar pattern of change in Europe and the USA.
• Not all Conservatives wanted to leave the EU though.
• Many Conservatives have argued for a new brand of politics dubbed ‘blue labour’ linking left-wing themes like equality and social justice to conservative themes like ‘family, faith and flag’. Donald Trump may spark the creation of this as he wishes to protect the US economy by curbing the free markets, with a desire for national interest rather than global capitalism.
• Conservatism is persistent and adaptable, rooted in importance of custom, habit, community and kinship. Change may be constant and inevitable yet the desire to change is one that should be respected.
• Tradition and identity will always be present and shows no signs of decaying. Maybe the lesson of the UKs 2016 referendum on the EU was that a Conservative PM was punished for not being conservative in an increasingly conservative era.